Creamery  Butter-Making 


BY 


JOHN  MICHELS,  B.S.A.,  M.S.  (WISCONSIN) 

PROFESSOR  OF  DAIRYING  AND  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

IN  THE  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 

OF  NORTH  CAROLINA 

AUTHOR   OF 

"MARKET    DAIRYING" 

AND 

"DAIRY  FARMING" 


ILLUSTRATED 

FIFTH  EDITION 

REVISED  AND  ENLARGED 


RALEIGH,  NORTH  CAROLINA 

PUBLISHED  BY  THE  AUTHOR 


ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
LIBRARY 

BRANCH  OF  THE 

i*Af  T  CY1P  nr    An 


COPYRIGHT,   1904  AND   1909 
BY  JOHN  MICHELS 


PREFACE  TO  FIRST  EDITION 

The  author's  experience  in  teaching  creamery  students 
has  demonstrated  to  him  the  need  of  a  suitable  reference 
book  to  be  used  in  conjunction  with  the  lectures  on  cream- 
ery butter  making.  An  attempt  to  supply  this  need  has 
resulted  in  the  preparation  of  this  work,  which  embodies 
the  results  of  a  long  experience  both  as  a  practical  butter 
maker  and  as  a  teacher  of  creamery  management. 

Special  emphasis  has  been  laid  upon  starters,  pasteur- 
ized butter  making,  methods  of  creamery  construction, 
and  creamery  mechanics,  subjects  which  have  usually  been 
treated  only  in  a  very  elementary  way  in  similar  publica- 
tions that  have  appeared  heretofore. 

The  historical  side  of  the  various  phases  of  butter  mak- 
ing has  in  the  main  been  omitted,  not  because  it  was 
deemed  uninteresting,  but  for  fear  of  making  this  volume 
too  bulky. 

With  the  appended  glossary  explaining  all  unavoidable 
technical  terms,  this  treatise  is  offered  to  the  public  as 
a  suitable  hand-book  for  the  student  as  well  as  for  the 
butter  maker  who  cannot  attend  a  dairy  school. 

JOHN 

Michigan  Agricultural  College, 
March,  1904. 


PREFACE  TO  FIFTH  EDITION. 

In  preparing  the  fifth  edition  of  Creamery  Butter- 
making,  a  thorough  revision  has  been  made  of  the  entire 
book  and  about  one  hundred  pages  of  new  matter 
have  been  added.  Indeed  nothing  has  been  left  undone  to 
bring  the  book  strictly  up-to-date,  in  order  that  it  may 
merit  a  continuance  of  the  high  favor  in  which  the  book 
has  been  held  since  its  first  appearance. 

All  available  sources  of  information  have  been  made 
use  of,  including  scores  of  leading  buttermakers  and 
creamery  managers  whose  assistance  has  been  especially 
valuable  in  determining  the  soundness  of  many  new 
features  that  have  recently  sprung  up  in  creamery  work. 
Much  information  relating  to  the  latest  developments  in 
creamery  work  has  been  secured  at  first  hand  by  visiting 
the  leading  creamery  sections  of  the  country. 

Valuable  advice  and  assistance  has  been  received 
from  Math  Michels,  a  veteran  creamery  buttermaker  of 
Wisconsin,  who  recently  conducted  the  Wisconsin  Educa- 
tional Butter  and  Cheese  Scoring  Exhibitions. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  "rule  of  thumb"  butter  making  days  are  gone  by. 
No  one  at  the  present  time  can  hold  any  important  posi- 
tion in  the  profession  of  butter  making  unless  thoroughly 
grounded  in  the  principles  that  underlie  it.  It  is  true 
many  obscure  problems  yet  remain  to  be  solved,  but  by 
the  aid  of  the  bacteriologist  and  chemist  butter  making 
has  now  been  fairly  placed  upon  a  scientific  basis. 

Bacteriology  has  shed  no  less  light  upon  the  various 
processes  involved  in  the  manufacture  of  butter  than  it 
has  upon  the  nature  and  causes  of  the  diseases  with  which 
mankind  is  afflicted.  The  souring  of  milk,  the  ripening 
of  cream,  the  causes  of  the  various  taints  common  to  milk 
and  cream  are  now  quite  thoroughly  understood.  Along 
with  this  understanding  have  come  many  radical  changes 
in  the  handling  of  milk  and  cream  and  their  manufacture 
into  butter  as  well  as  in  the  handling  of  butter  itself. 

The  best  butter  makers  at  the  present  time  are  the  men 
who  are  the  most  diligent  students  of  bacteria  and  their 
relation  to  butter  making  processes.  Above  their  doors 
is  written  in  emblazoned  letters  "Cleanliness  is  next  to 
Godliness."  For  cleanliness  is  the  foundation  of  success 
in  butter  making. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Chapter  I.     Chemical  and  Physical  Properties  of  Milk     n 

Chapter  II.    The  Babcock  Test 23 

Chapter  III.    The  Lactometer  and  Its  Use 34 

Chapter  IV.     Bacteria    and    Milk   Fermentations 42 

Chapter  V.     Composite   Sampling    51 

Chapter  VI.    Creaming   57 

Chapter         VII.     Cream  Ripening   66 

Chapter        VIII.     Starters   84 

Chapter  IX.     Churning   96 

Chapter  X.     Packing  and  Marketing  Butter in 

Chapter  XI.    Calculating  Dividends  119 

Chapter          XII.    Theoretical    Overrun    128 

Chapter         XIII.    Handling  of   Skimmilk  and  Buttermilk...   130 

Chapter        XIV.    Butter  Judging   137 

Chapter          XV.     Pasteurization  as  Applied  to  Buttermaking  145 

Chapter        XVI.     Control  of  Water  in  Butter 154 

Chapter      XVII.     Sampling,  Weighing  and  Testing  Gathered 

Cream 161 

Chapter     XVIII.    Location  and  Construction  of  Creameries.  .  171 

Chapter        XIX.     Ice  House  and  Refrigerator 182 

Chapter          XX.    Sewage  Disposal  188 

Chapter        XXL     Washing  and  Sterilizing  Vessels 194 

Chapter      XXII.    Detection  of  Tainted  Milk  and  Cream....  200 

Chapter     XXIII.     Mechanical  Refrigeration   205 

Chapter     XXIV.    Creamery  Bookkeeping 215 

Chapter       XXV.    Co-operative  Creameries 224 

Chapter     XXVI.     Handling  Milk  and  Cream  at  the  Farm 230 

Chapter    XXVII.     Sanitary    Milk    Production 241 

Chapter  XXVIII.    Transportation  of  Cream 251 

Chapter     XXIX.     Water   Supply   for  Farm  and   Creamery.  .   256 

Chapter       XXX.     Selling  Cream  and  Ice  Cream 262 

Chapter     XXXI.     Creamery  Mechanics   272 

Chapter    XXXII.     Grading  Milk  and  Cream. 307 

Appendix    311 

Glossary 318 

Index    322 


CREAMERY    BUTTER    MAKING. 


CHAPTER  I. 

CHEMICAL   AND    PHYSICAL   PROPERTIES   OF    MILK. 

Milk,  in  a  broad  sense,  may  be  defined  as  the  normal 
secretion  of  the  mammary  glands  of  animals  that  suckle 
their  young.  It  is  the  only 
food  found  in  Nature  con- 
taining all  the  elements 
necessary  to  sustain  life. 
Moreover  it  contains  these 
elements  in  the  proper  pro- 
portions and  in  easily  di- 
gestible and  assimilable 
form. 

Designed  by  Nature  to 
nourish  the  young,  milk 
was  originally  used  entirely 
for  this  purpose  and  secre- 
ted only  a  short  time  after 
parturition.  For  many  cen- 

•*  Weigh  can  showing  gate  opener. 

tunes,  however,  it  has  been 

used  as  an  important  part  of  the  human  dietary  and  cows 

at  the  present  time  yield  milk  almost  incessantly.  Because 

of  its  nutritive  qualities  its  use  as  a  dietetic  is  rapidly 

increasing. 

Physical  Properties.  Milk  is  a  whitish  opaque  fluid 
possessing  a  sweetish  taste  and  a  faint  ordor  suggestive 
of  cow's  breath.  It  has  an  amphioteric  reaction,  that  is, 

11 


12  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

it  is  both  acid  and  alkaline.  This  double  reaction  is  due 
largely  to  acid  and  alkaline  salts  and  possibly  to  small 
quantities  of  organic  acids. 

Milk  has  an  average  normal  specific  gravity  of  1.032, 
with  extremes  rarely  exceeding  1.029  and  I-°33«  After 
standing  a  few  moments  it  loses  its  homogenous  character. 
Evidence  of  this  we  have  in  the  "rising  of  the  cream." 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  milk  is  not  a  perfect  solution 
but  an  emulsion.  All  of  the  fat,  the  larger  portion  of  the 
casein,  and  part  of  the  ash  are  in  suspension. 

In  consistency  milk  is  slightly  more  viscous  than  water, 
the  viscosity  increasing  with  the  decrease  in  temperature. 
It  is  also  exceedingly  sensitive  to  odors,  possessing  great 
absorption  properties.  This  teaches  the  necessity  of  plac- 
ing milk  in  clean  pure  surroundings. 

Chemical  Composition.  The  composition  of  milk  is 
very  complex  and  variable,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  fol- 
lowing figures : 

Average  Composition  of  Normal  Milk.  A  com- 
pilation of  figures  from  v-arious  American  Ex- 
periment Stations. 

Water 87.1* 

Butter  fat 3.9^ 

Casein    2.9^ 

Albumen   5^ 

Sugar 4.9^ 

Ash ' 7^ 

Fibrin     Trace. 

Galactase  Trace. 


100.0$ 


The  great  variations  in  the  composition  of  milk  are 
shown  by  the  figures  from  Koenig,  given  below : 


PROPERTIES  OF  MILK  13 

Maximum.  Minimum. 

Water    90-69  80.32 

Fat    6.47  1.67 

Casein    4-23  l-79 

Albumen   i .  44  -25 

Sugar   6.03  2.  ii 

'  Ash  i. 21  .35 

These  figures  represent  quite  accurately  the  maximum 
and  minimum  composition  of  milk  except  that  the  maxi- 
mum for  fat  is  too  low.  The  author  has  known  cows 
to  yield  milk  testing  7.6%  fat,  and  records  show  tests 
even  higher  than  this. 

BUTTER   FAT. 

This  is  the  most  valuable  as  well  as  the  most  variable 
constituent  of  milk.  It  constitutes  about  83%  of  butter 
and  is  an  indispensable  constituent  of  the  many  kinds  of 
whole  milk  cheese  now  found  upon  the  market.  It  also 
measures  the  commercial  value  of  milk  and  cream,  and 
is  used  as  an  index  of  the  value  of  milk  for  butter  and 
cheese  production. 

Physical  Properties.  Butter  fat  is  suspended  in  milk 
in  the  form  of  extremely  small  globules  numbering  about 
100,000,000  per  drop  of  milk.  These  globules  vary  con- 
siderably in  size  in  any  given  sample,  some  being  five 
times  as  large  as  others.  The  size  of  the  globules  is 
affected  mostly  by  the  period  of  lactation.  As  a  rule  the 
size  decreases  and  the  number  increases  with  the  advance 
of  the  period.  In  strippers'  milk  the  globules  are  some- 
times so  small  as  to  render  an  efficient  separation  of  the 
cream  and  the  churning  of  same  impossible. 

The  size  of  the  fat  globules  also  varies  with  different 
breeds.  In  the  Jersey  breed  the  diameter  of  the  globule 


14  CKBAMHRY  BUTTER  MAKING 

is  one  eight-thousandth  of  an  inch,  in  the  Holstein  one 
twelve-thousandth,  while  the  average  for  all  breeds  is 
about  one  ten-thousandth. 

Night's  milk  usually  has  smaller  globules  than  morn- 
ing's. The  size  of  the  globules  also  decreases  with  the 
age  of  the  cow. 

The  density  or  specific  gravity  of  butter  fat  at  100°  F. 
is  .91  and  is  quite  constant.  Its  melting  point  varies 
between  wide  limits,  the  average  being  92°  F. 

Composition  of  Butter  Fat.  According  to  Richmond, 
butter  fat  has  the  following  composition : 


Butyrin 3.85 

Caproin   3 . 60 

Caprylin    55 

Caprin    1 . 90 

Laurin 7.40 

Myristin 20.20 

Palmitin    25 . 70 

Stearin 1.80 

Olein,  etc 35 .  oo 


Soluble  or    volatile. 


Insoluble  or 
non-volatile. 


This  shows  butter  fat  to  be  composed  of  no  less  than 
nine  distinct  fats,  which  are  formed  by  the  union  of 
glycerine  with  the  corresponding  fatty  acids.  Thus,  buty- 
rin  is  a  compound  of  glycerine  and  butyric  acid ;  palmitin, 
a  compound  of  glycerine  and  palmitic  acid,  etc.  The 
most  important  of  these  acids  are  palmitic,  oleic,  and 
butyric. 

Palmitic  acid  is  insoluble,  melts  at  144°  F.,  and  forms 
(with  stearic  acid)  the  basis  of  hard  fats. 

Oleic  acid  is  insoluble,  melts  at  57°  F.,  and  forms  the 
basis  of  soft  fats. 


PROPERTIES  OF  MILK  15 

Butyric  acid  is  soluble  and  is  a  liquid  which  solidifies 
at  — 2°  F.  and  melts  again  at  28°  F. 

Insoluble  Fats.  A  study  of  these  fats  is  essential  in 
elucidating 'the  variability  of  the  churning  temperature 
of  cream.  As  a  rule  this  is  largely  determined  by  the 
relative  amounts  of  hard  and  soft  fats  present  in  butter 
fat.  Other  conditions  the  same,  the  harder  the  fat  the 
higher  the  churning  temperature.  Scarcely  any  two  milks 
contain  exactly  the  same  relative  amounts  of  hard  and 
soft  fats,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  the  churning  tem- 
perature is  such  a  variable  one. 

The  relative  amounts  of  hard  and  soft  fats  are  influ- 
enced by : 

1.  Breeds. 

2.  Feeds. 

3.  Period  of  lactation. 

4.  Individuality  of  cows. 

The  butter  fat  of  Jerseys  is  harder  than  that  of  Hoi- 
steins  and,  therefore,  requires  a  relatively  high  churning 
temperature,  the  difference  being  about  six  degrees. 

Feeds  have  an  important  influence  upon  the  character 
of  the  butter  fat.  Cotton  seed  meal  and  bran,  for  example, 
materially  increase  the  percentage  of  hard  fats.  Gluten 
feeds  and  linseed  meal,  on  the  other  hand,  produce  a  soft 
butter  fat. 

With  the  advance  of  the  period  of  lactation  the  per- 
centage of  hard  fat  increases.  This  chemical  change,  to- 
gether with  the  physical  change  which  butter  fat  under- 
goes, makes  churning  difficult  in  the  late  period  of  lac- 
tation. 

The  individuality  of  the  cow  also  to  a  great  extent 
influences  the  character  of  the  butter  fat.  It  is  inherent 


16  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

in  some  cows  to  produce  a  soft  butter  fat,  in  others  to 
produce  a  hard  butter  fat,  even  in  cows  of  the  same  breed. 

Soluble  Fats.  The  soluble  or  volatile  fats,  of  which 
butyrin  is  the  most  important,  give  milk  and  sweet  cream 
butter  their  characteristic  flavors.    Butyrin  is  found  only 
in  butter  fat  and  distinguishes  this  from  all  vegetable 
and  other  animal  fats. 

The  percentage  of  soluble  fats  decreases  with  the  period 
of  lactation,  also  with  the  feeding  of  dry  feeds  and  those 
rich  in  protein.  Succulent  feeds  and  those  rich  in  carbo- 
hydrates, according  to  experiments  made  in  Holland  and 
elsewhere,  increase  the  percentage  of  soluble  fats.  This 
may  partly  account  for  the  superiority  of  the  flavor  of 
June  butter. 

It  may  be  proper,  also,  to  discuss  under  volatile  or 
soluble  fats  those  abnormal  flavors  that  are  imparted  to 
milk,  cream,  and  butter  by  weeds  like  garlic  and  wild 
onions,  and  by  various  feeds  such  as  beet  tops,  rape,  par- 
tially spoiled  silage,  etc.  These  flavors  are  undoubtedly 
due  to  abnormal  volatile  fats. 

Cows  should  never  be  fed  strong  flavored  feeds  shortly 
before  milking.  When  this  is  done  the  odors  are  sure 
to  be  transmitted  to  the  milk  and  the  products  therefrom. 
When,  however,  feeds  of  this  kind  are  fed  shortly  after 
milking  no  bad  effects  will  be  noticed  at  the  next  milking. 

Albumenoids.  These  are  nitrogenous  compounds 
which  give  milk  its  high  dietetic  value.  Casein,  albumen, 
globulin,  and  nuclein  form  the  albumenoids  of  milk,  the 
casein  and  albumen  being  by  far  the  most  important. 

Casein.  This  is  a  white  colloidal  substance,  possessing 
neither  taste  nor  smell.  It  is  the  most  important  tissue- 
forming  constituent  of  milk  and  forms  the  basis  of  an 
almost  endless  variety  of  cheese. 


PROPERTIES  OF  MILK  17 

The  larger  portion  of  the  casein  is  suspended  in  milk 
in  an  extremely  finely  divided  amorphus  condition.  It  is 
intimately  associated  with  the  insoluble  calcium  phosphate 
of  milk  and  possibly  held  in  chemical  combination  with 
this.  Its  study  presents  many  difficulties,  which  leaves  its 
exact  composition  still  undetermined. 

Casein  is  easily  precipitated  by  means  of  rennet  extract 
and  dilute  acids,  but  the  resulting  precipitates  are  not 
identically  the  same.  It  is  not  coagulated  by  heat. 

Albumen.  In  composition  albumen  very  closely  re- 
sembles casein,  differing  from  this  only  in  not  containing 
sulphur.  It  is  soluble  and  unaffected  by  rennet,  which 
causes  most  of  it  to  pass  into  the  whey  in  the  manufacture 
of  cheese.  It  is  coagulated  at  a  temperature  of  170°  F. 
It  is  in  their  behavior  toward  heat  and  rennet  that  casein 
and  albumen  radically  differ. 

Milk  Sugar.  This  sugar,  commonly  called  lactose,  has 
the  same  chemical  composition  as  cane  sugar,  differing 
from  it  chiefly  in  possessing  only  a  faint  sweetish  taste. 
It  readily  changes  into  lactic  acid  when  acted  upon  by 
the  lactic  acid  bacteria.  This  causes  the  ordinary  phenom- 
enon of  milk  souring.  The  maximum  amount  of  acid  in 
milk  rarely  exceeds  .9%,  the  germs  usually  being  checked 
or  killed  before  this  amount  is  formed.  There  is  there- 
fore always  a  large  portion  of  the  sugar  left  in  sour  milk. 
All  of  the  milk  sugar  is  in  solution. 

Ash.  Most  of  the  ash  of  milk  exists  in  solution.  It 
is  composed  of  lime,  magnesia,  potash,  soda,  phosphoric 
acid,  chlorine,  and  iron,  the  soluble  lime  being  the  most 
important  constituent.  It  is  upon  this  that  the  action  of 
rennet  extract  is  dependent.  For  when  milk  is  heated 
to  high  temperatures  the  soluble  lime  is  rendered  insoluble 
and  rennet  will  no  longer  curdle  milk.  It  seems  also  that 

2 


18  CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 

the  viscosity  of  milk  and  cream  is  largely  due  to  soluble 
lime  salts.  Cream  heated  to  high  temperatures  loses  its 
viscosity  to  such  an  extent  that  it  can  not  be  made  to 
"whip/'  Treatment  with  soluble  lime  restores  its  orig- 
inal viscosity.  The  ash  is  the  least  variable  constituent 
of  milk. 

Colostrum  Milk.  This  is  the  first  milk  drawn  after 
parturition.  It  is  characterized  by  its  peculiar  odor,  yel- 
low color,  broken  down  cells,  and  high  content  of  albu- 
men which  gives  it  its  viscous,  slimy  appearance  and 
causes  it  to  coagulate  on  application  of  heat. 

According  to  Eugling  the  average  composition  of  colos- 
trum milk  is  as  follows : 

Water 71 .69^ 

Fat  3-37 

Casein 4.83 

Albumen   15.85 

Sugar  2 . 48 

Ash 1.78 

The  secretion  of  colostrum  milk  is  of  very  short  dura- 
tion. Usually  within  four  or  five  days  after  calving  it 
assumes  all  the  properties  of  normal  milk.  In  some  cases, 
however,  it  does  not  become  normal  till  the  sixth  or  even 
the  tenth  day,  depending  largely  upon  the  condition  of 
the  animal. 

A  good  criterion  in  the  detection  of  colostrum  milk  is 
its  peculiar  color,  odor,  and  slimy  appearance.  The  dis- 
appearance of  these  characteristics  determines  its  fitness 
for  butter  production. 

Milk  Secretion.  Just  how  all  of  the  different  con- 
stituents of  milk  are  secreted  is  not  yet  definitely 
understood.  But  it  is  known  that  the  secretion  takes 


PROPERTIES  OF  MILK  19 

place  in  the  udder  of  the  cow,  and  principally  during  the 
process  of  milking.  Further,  the  entire  process  of  milk 
elaboration  seems  to  be  under  the  control  of  the  nervous 
system  of  the  cow.  This  accounts  for  the  changes  in  flow 
and  richness  of  milk  whenever  cows  are  subjected  to 
abnormal  treatment.  It  is  well  known  that  a  change  of 
milkers,  the  use  of  rough  language,  or  the  abuse  of  cows 
with  dogs  and  milk  stools,  seriously  affects  the  production 
of  milk  and  butter  fat.  It  is  therefore  of  the  greatest 
practical  importance  to  milk  producers  to  treat  cows 
as  gently  as  possible,  especially  during  the  process  of 
milking. 

How  Secreted.  The  source  from  which  the  milk  con- 
stituents are  elaborated  is  the  blood.  It  must  not  be  sup- 
posed, however,  that  all  the  different  constituents  already 
exist  in  the  blood  in  the  form  in  which  we  find  them  in 
milk,  for  the  blood  is  practically  free  from  fat,  casein, 
and  milk  sugar.  These  substances  must  then  be  formed  in 
the  cells  of  the  udder  from  material  supplied  them  by  the 
blood.  Thus  there  are  in  the  udder  cells  that  have  the 
power  of  secreting  fat  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  by 
which  the  gastric  juice  is  secreted  in  the  stomach.  Simi- 
larly, the  formation  of  lactose  is  the  result  of  the  action 
of  another  set  of  cells  whose  function  is  to  produce  lac- 
tose. It  is  believed  that  the  casein  is  formed  from  the 
albumen  through  the  activity  of  certain  other  cells.  The 
water,  albumen,  and  soluble  ash  probably  pass  directly 
from  the  blood  into  the  milk  ducts  by  the  process  known 
as  osmosis. 

Variations  in  the  Quality  of  Milk.  Milk  from  dif- 
ferent sources  may  vary  considerably  in  composition, 
particularly  in  the  percentage  of  butter  fat.  Even  the 


20  CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 

milk  from  the  same  cow  may  vary  a  great  deal  in  compo- 
sition. The  causes  of  these  variations  may  be  assigned 
to  two  sets  of  conditions :  I. — Those  natural  to  the  cow. 
II. — Those  of  an  artificial  nature. 

I.      QUALITY   OP   MILK   AS   AFFECTED   BY   NATURAL  CONDI- 
TIONS. 

I.  The  composition  of  the  milk  of  all  cows  undergoes 
a  change  with  the  advance  of  the  period  of  lactation. 
During  the  first  five  months  the  composition  remains  prac- 
tically the  same.  After  this,  however,  the  milk  becomes 
gradually  richer  until  the  cow  "dries  up."  The  following 
figures  from  Van  Slyke  illustrate  this  change : 


Month  of 
lactation. 
i  

Per  cent  of  fat 
in  milk. 

4.  ^4 

2.  . 

4  n 

^.  . 

4.28 

4.  . 

4   ^0 

q 

4  ^8 

6  

4-53 

7 

.  .  .  .  4  .  56 

8               

4.66 

o.  . 

4  .  79 

10.  . 

q.oo 

It  will  be  noticed  from  these  figures  that  the  milk 
actually  decreases  somewhat  in  richness  during  the  first 
three  months  of  the  period.  But  just  before  the  cow  dries 
up,  it  may  test  as  high  as  8%. 

2.  The  quality  of  milk  also  differs  with  different 
breeds.  Yet  breed  differences  are  less  marked  than  those 
of  the  individual  cows  of  any  particular  breed. 

Some  breeds  produce  rich  milk,  others  relatively  poor 


PROPERTIES  OP  MILK 


21 


milk.     The  following  data  obtained  at  the  New  Jersey 
Experiment  Station  illustrates  these  differences: 


Breed. 

Total 
Solids. 

Fat. 

Milk 
Sugar. 

Proteids. 

Ash. 

Ayshire  

Per  cent. 
12.70 

Per  cent. 
3.68 

Per  cent. 
4.84 

Per  cent. 
3.48 

Per  cent. 
.69 

Guernsey 

14  48 

5.02 

4.80 

3.92 

.75 

Holstein  

12.12 

3.51 

4.69 

3.28 

.64 

Jersey.  .  . 

14.34 

4.78 

4.85 

3.96 

.75 

3.  Extremes  in  the  composition  of  milk  are  usually 
to  be  ascribed  to  the  individuality  or  "make  up"  of  the 
cow.  It  is  inherent  in  some  cows  to  produce  rich  milk, 
in  others  to  produce  poor  milk.  In  other  words,  Nature 
has  made  every  cow  to  produce  milk  of  a  given  richness, 
which  can  not  be  perceptibly  changed  except  by  careful 
selection  and  breeding  for  a  number  of  generations. 

II.      QUAUTY  OF  MILK  AS  AFFECTED  BY  ARTIFICIAL  CON- 
DITIONS. 

1.  When  cows  are  only  partially  milked  they  yield 
poorer  milk  than  when  milked  clean.     This  is  largely 
explained  by  the  fact  that  the  first  drawn  milk  is  always 
poorer  in  fat  than  that  drawn  last.     Fore  milk  may  test 
as  low  as  .8%,  while  the  strippings  sometimes  test  as 
high  as  14%. 

2.  Fast  milking  increases  both  the  quality  and  the 
quantity  of  the  milk.    It  is  for  this  reason  that  fast  milkers 
are  so  much  preferred  to  slow  ones. 


22  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING- 

3.  The  richness  of  milk  is  also  influenced  by  the  length 
of  time  that  elapses  between  the  milkings.     In  general, 
the  shorter  the  time  between  the  milkings  the  richer  the 
milk.     This,  no  doubt,  in  a  large  measure  accounts  for 
the  differences  we  often  find  in  the  richness  of  morning's 
and  night's  milk.     Sometimes  the  morning's  milk  is  the 
richer,  at  other  times  the  evening's,  depending  largely 
upon  the  time  of  day  the  cows  are  milked.    Milk  can  not, 
however,  be  permanently  enriched  by  milking  three  times 
in  stead  of  twice  a  day. 

4.  Unusual  excitement  of  any  kind  reduces  the  quality 
of  milk.     The  person   who  abuses  cows  by  dogs,  milk 
stools,  or  boisterousness,  pays  dearly  for  it  in  a  reduction 
of  both  the  quality  and  the  quantity  of  milk  produced. 

5.  Starvation  also  seriously  affects  both  the  quality 
and  the  quantity  of  milk.   It  has  been  repeatedly  shown,  in 
this  country  and  in  Europe,  that  .under-feeding  to  any 
great  extent  results  in  the  production  of  milk  poor  in  fat. 

6.  Sudden  changes   of   feed  may  slightly  affect  the 
richness  of  milk,  but  only  temporarily. 

So  long  as  cows  are  fed  a  full  ration,  it  is  not  possible 
to  change  the  richness  of  milk  permanently,  no  matter 
what  the 'character  of  feed  composing  the  ration. 

7.  Irregularities  of  feeding  and  milking,  exposure  to 
heat,  cold,  rain,  and  flies,  tend  to  reduce  both  the  quantity 

and  the  quality  of  milk  produced. 

• 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  BABCOCK  TEST. 

This  is  a  cheap  and  simple  device  for  determining  the 
percentage  of  fat  in  milk,  cream,  skim-milk,  buttermilk, 
whey,  and  cheese.  It  was  invented  in  1890  by  Dr.  S.  M. 
Babcock,  of  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, and  ranks  among  the  leading  agricultural  inventions 
of  modern  times.  The  chief  uses  of  the  Babcock  test  may 
be  mentioned  as  follows : 

1.  It  has  made  possible  the  payment  for  milk  accord- 
ing to  its  quality. 

2.  It  has  enabled  butter  and  cheese  makers  to  detect 
undue  losses  in  the  process  of  manufacture. 

3.  It  has  made  possible  the  grading  up  of  dairy  herds 
by  locating  the  poor  cows. 

4.  It  has,  in  a  large  measure,  done  away  with  the  prac- 
tice of  watering  and  skimming  milk. 

Principle  of  the  Babcock  Test.  The  separation  of 
the  butter  fat  from  milk  with  the  Babcock  test  is  made 
possible : 

1.  By  the  difference  between  the  specific  gravity  of 
butter  fat  and  milk  serum. 

2.  By  the  centrifugal  force  generated  in  the  tester. 

3.  By  burning  the  solids  not  fat  with  a  strong  acid. 
Sample  for  a  Test.  Whatever  the  sample  to  be  tested, 

always  eighteen  grams  are  used  for  a  test.  In  testing 
cream  and  cheese,  the  sample  is  weighed.  For  testing 
milk,  skim-milk,  buttermilk,  and  whey,  weighing  requires 

23 


24 


CREAMERY   BUTTER   MAKING 


too  much  time.     Indeed,  with  these  substances  weighing 
is  not  necessary  as  sufficiently  accurate  samples  are  ob- 


Fig.   1.— Babcock  tester. 


tained  by  measuring  which  is  the  method  universally  em- 
ployed. In  making  a  Babcock  test  it  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  secure  a  uniform  sample  of  the  substance 
to  be  tested. 


THE  BABCOCK  TEST  25 

Apparatus.  This  consists  essentially  of  the  following 
parts  :  A,  Babcock  tester ;  B,  milk  bottle ;  C,  cream  bottle ; 
D,  skim-milk  bottle ;  E,  pipette  or  milk  measure ;  F,  acid 
measures ;  G,  cream  scales ;  H,  mixing  cans ;  I,  dividers. 

A.  Babcock  Tester.     This  machine,  shown  in  Fig.  i, 
consists  of  a  revolving  wheel  placed  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion and  provided  with  swinging  pockets  for  the  bottles. 
This  wheel  is  rotated  by  means  of  a  steam  turbine  wheel 
in  the  bottom  or  at  the  top  of  the  tester.    When  the  tester 
stops  the  pockets  hang  down  allowing  the  bottles  to  stand 
up.     As  the  wheel  begins  rotating  the  pockets  move  out 
causing  the  bottles  to  assume  a  horizontal  position.    Both 
wheels  are  enclosed  in  a  cast  iron  frame  provided  with  a 
cover. 

B.  Milk  Bottle.  This  has  a  neck  graduated  to  ten 
large  divisions,  each  of  which  reads  one  per  cent.    Each 
large    division    is    subdivided    into    five    smaller    ones, 
making  each  subdivision  read  .2%.     The  contents  of  the 
neck  from  the  zero  mark  to  the  10%  mark  is  equivalent  to 
two  cubic  centimeters.     Since  the  Babcock  test  does  not 
give  the  percentage  of  fat  by  volume  but  by  weight,  the 
10%  scale  on  the  neck  of  the  bottle  will,  therefore,  hold 
1.8  grams  of  fat.    In  other  words,  if  the  scale  were  filled 
with  water  it  would  hold  two  grams ;  but  fat  being  only 
.9  as  heavy,  2  cubic  centimeters  of  it  would  weigh  nine- 
tenths  of  two  grams  or  1.8  grams.   This  is  exactly  10% 
of  1 8  grams,  the  weight  of  the  sample  used  for  testing. 
A  milk  bottle  is  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

C.  Cream  Bottles.    These  are  graduated  from  30%  to 
55%.     A  30%  bottle  is  shown  in  Fig.  3.     Since  cream 
usually  tests  more  than  30%,  the  sample  must  be  divided 
when  the  30%  bottles  are  used.  See  p.  167. 


26 


CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 


Fig.  2.— Milk 
bottle. 


Pig.  3.— Cream 
bottle. 


Fig.  4.— Skim-milk 
bottle. 


D.  Skim=milk  Bottle.  This  bottle,  shown  in  Fig.  4, 
is  provided  with  a  double  neck,  a  large  one  to  admit  the 
milk,  and  a  smaller  graduated  neck  for  fat  reading.  The 
entire  scale  reads  one-half  per  cent.  Being  divided  into 
ten  subdivisions  each  subdivision  reads  .05%.  The  same 
bottle  is  also  used  for  testing  buttermilk. 


THH  BABCOCK  TEST 


27 


\ 


-«a 


Fig.  6.— 
Acid  meas- 
ure. 


Fig.  7  — 
Acid  meas- 
ure. 


E.  Pipette.     This  holds  17.6  c.c.,  as  shown 
in   Fig.   5.      Since  about   .1   c.c.   of  milk  will 
adhere  to  the  inside  of  the  pipette  it  is  ex- 
pected to  deliver  only  17.5  c.c.,  which  is  equiva- 
lent to  1 8  grams  of  normal  milk. 

F.  Acid  Measures.    In  making  a  Babcock 
test  equal  quantities,  by  volume,  of  acid  and 
milk  are  used.     The  acid  measure,  shown  in 

Fig.  6,  holds  17.5  c.c.  of  acid,  the  amount  needed  for  one 
test.  The  one  shown  in  Fig.  7  is  divided  into  six  divisions, 
each  of  which  holds  17.5  c.c.  or  one  charge  of  acid.  Where 


Fig.  5.— Pi- 
pette. 


28 


CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 


many  tests  are  made  a  graduate  of  this  kind  saves  time 
in  rilling,  but  should  be  made  to  hold  twenty-five  charges. 

H.  A  cream  scales  commonly  used  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  8. 

Acid.     The  acid  used  in  the  test  is  commercial  sul- 


Fig.  g. — Cream  Scales.    (See  pp.  167  and  168.) 

phuric  acid  having  a  specific  gravity  of  1.82 
to  1.83.  When  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
acid  falls  below  1.82  the  milk  solids  are  not 
properly  burned  and  particles  of  curd  may 
appear  in  the  fat.  On  the  other  hand,  an 
acid  with  a  specific  gravity  above  1.83  has 
a  tendency  to  blacken  or  char  the  fat. 

The  sulphuric  acid,  besides  burning  the 
solids  not  fat,  facilitates  the  separation  of 
the  fat  by  raising  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
medium  in  which  it  floats. 

Sulphuric  acid  must  be  kept  in  glass  bot- 
tles provided  with  glass  stoppers.  Exposure 
to  the  air  materially  weakens  it. 

Making  a  Babcock  Test.    The    different 
indicated  as  follows : 

1.  Thoroughly  mix  the  sample. 

2.  Immediately  after  mixing  insert  the  pipette  into 
the  milk  and  suck  until  the  milk  has  gone  above  the  mark 
on  the  pipette,  then  quickly  place  the  fore  finger  over  the 


Fig.  9.— Show- 
ing manner  of 
emptying  pi- 
pette. 

steps    are 


THE  BABCOCK  TEST 


29 


top  and  allow  the  milk  to  run  down  to  the  mark  by  slowly 
relieving  the  pressure  of  the  finger. 

3.  Empty  the  milk  into  the  bottle  in  the  manner  shown 
in  Fig.  9. 

4.  Add  the  acid  in  the  same  manner  in  which  the  milk 
was  emptied  into  the  bottle. 

5.  Mix  the  acid  with  the  milk  by  giving  the  bottle  a 
slow  rotary  motion. 

6.  Allow  mixture  to  stand  a  few  minutes. 

7.  Shake  or  mix  again  and  then  place  the  bottle  in 
the  tester. 

8.  Run  tester  four  minutes  at  the 
proper  speed. 

9.  Add  moderately  hot  water  until 
contents    come    to    the    neck    of    the 
bottle. 

10.  Whirl  one  minute. 

11.  Add  moderately  hot  water  un- 
til contents  of  the  bottle  reach  about 
the  8%  mark. 

12.  Whirl  one  minute. 

13.  Leave  tester  open  a  few  min- 
utes. 

14.  Read  test. 

How  to  Read  Milk  Tests.  At  the 
top  of  the  fat  column  is  usually  quite  a 
pronounced  meniscus  as  shown  in  Fig. 
10.  A  less  pronounced  one  is  found 
at  the  bottom  of  the  column.  The  fat 
should  be  read  from  the  extremes  of 
the  fat  column,  i  to  3,  not  from  2  to  4, 
when  its  temperature  is  about  140°  F. 
Too  high  a  temperature  gives  too  high 


isr.    10.— Fat   column 
sho\>  ingmeniscuses. 


30 


CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 


a  reading,  because  of  the  expanded  condition  of  the  fat, 
while  too  low  a  temperature  gives  an  uncertain  reading. 


Fig.  12.— Milk  but- 
Fig.  11.  — Waste  aoid  jar.  tie  tester. 

Precautions  in  Making  a  Test.     I.  Be  sure  you  have 
a  fair  sample. 

2.  The  temperature  of  the  milk  should  be  about  60 
or  70  degrees. 

3.  Always  mix  twice  after  acid  has  been  added. 

4.  Be  sure  your  tester  runs  at  the  right  speed. 


THE  BABCOCK  TEST  31 

5.  Use  nothing  but  clean,  soft  water  in  filling  the 
bottles. 

6.  Be  sure  the  tester  does  not  jar. 

7.  Be  sure  the  acid  is  of  the  right  strength. 

8.  Mix  as  soon  as  acid  is  added  to  milk. 

9.  Do  not  allow  the  bottles  to  become  cold  before 
reading  the  test. 

10.  Read  the  test  twice  to  insure  a  correct  reading. 
The  water  added  to  the  test  bottles  after  they  have  been, 

whirled  should  be  clean  and  pure.  Water  containing 
much  lime  seriously  affects  the  test.  Such  water  may 
be  used,  however,  when  first  treated  with  a  few  drops  of 
sulphuric  acid. 

As  stated  before  skim-milk,  buttermilk,  and  cream  are 
tested  in  the  same  way  as  milk,  with  the  exception  that 
the  cream  sample  is  weighed  not  measured. 

Cleaning  Test  Bottles.  As  soon  as  the  test  is  read, 
the  bottles  are  emptied  by  shaking  them  up  and  down  so 
as  to  remove  the  white  sediment.  Next  wash  them  in 
hot  water  containing  some  alkali,  and  finally  rinse  them 
with  hot  water.  Occasionally  the  bottles  should  be  rinsed 
with  a  special  cleaning  solution,  which  is  made  by  dis- 
solving about  one  ounce  of  potassium  bichromate  in  one 
pint  of  sulphuric  acid.  A  small  brush  should  also  oc- 
casionally be  run  up  and  down  the  neck  of  the  bottle. 

Testing  or  Calibrating  Milk  Bottles.  Fill  the  bottle 
to  the  zero  mark  with  water,  or  preferably  wood  alco- 
hol to  which  a  little  coloring  matter  has  been  added. 
Immerse  the  lower  section  of  the  tester,  shown  in  Fig.  12, 
in  the  contents  of  the  bottle.  If  the  bottle  is  correct,  the 
contents  will  rise  to  the  5%  mark.  Next  immerse  both 
sections  of  the  tester  which  will  bring  the  contents  to 
the  10%  mark  if  the  bottle  is  correctly  calibrated. 


32  CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 

It  has  been  learned  that  the  volume  of  the  graduated 
part  of  the  neck  is  2  c.c.  Each  section  of  the  tester  is 
made  to  displace  I  c.c.  when  immersed  in  the  liquid, 
hence  the  two  sections  will  just  fill  the  scale  if  the  latter 
is  correct. 

Calculating  Speed  of  Tester.  The  speed  at  which 
a  tester  must  be  run  is  dependent  upon  the  diameter  of  the 
wheel  carrying  the  bottles.  The  larger  this  wheel  the 
fewer  the  revolutions  it  must  make  per  minute  to  effect 
a  complete  separation  of  the  fat. 

In  the  following  table  by  Farrington  and  Woll  the 
necessary  speed  per  given  diameter  is  calculated : 

Diameter  of  No.  of  revolutions 

wheel  of  ivheel 

in  inches.  per  minute. 

10 1,074 

12 980 

14 909 

16 848 

18 800 

20 759 

22 724 

24 693 

General  Pointers.     Black  fat  is  caused  by 

1.  Too  strong  acid. 

2.  Too  much  acid. 

3.  Too  high  a  temperature  of  the  acid  or  the  milk. 

4.  Not  mixing  soon  enough. 

5.  Dropping  the  acid  through  the  milk. 

Foam  on  top  of  fat  is  caused  by  hard  water,  and  can  be 
prevented  by  adding  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric  acid  to  the 
water. 


THE  BABCOCK  TEST  33 


Unclean  or  cloudy  fat  is  caused  by 

1.  Insufficient  mixing. 

2.  Too  low  speed  of  tester. 

3.  Too  low  temperature. 

4.  Too  weak  acid. 

Curd  particles  in  fat  are  caused  by 

1.  Too  weak  acid. 

2.  Not  enough  acid. 

3.  Too  low  temperature. 


CHAPTER  III. 

I.      THE:  LACTOMETER  AND  ITS  USE. 

This  instrument,  shown  in  Fig.  13,  is  used  to  determine 
the  specific  gravity  of  milk.  The  stem  has  two  scales 
upon  it,  a  thermometer  scale  at  the  upper  end  and  a  lac- 
tometer scale  at  the  lower.  The  latter  scale  reads  from 
fifteen  to  forty,  being  divided  into  twenty-five  divisions, 
-each  of  which  reads  one  lactometer  degree.  The  lower 
end  of  the  instrument  consists  of  two  bulbs :  an  upper  one 
containing  the  mercury  for  the  thermometer  scale,  and  a 
lower  and  larger  one  weighted  with  shot  or  mercury 
which  serves  to  immerse  and  to  keep  in  an  upright  posi- 
tion the  large  oblong  bulb  or  float  below  the  stem. 

Making  the  Test.  In  making  a  lactometer  test  the 
sample  of  milk  is  carefully  mixed  and  placed  in  the 
lactometer  cylinder.  (Fig.  14.)  The  lactometer  is  now 
carefully  lowered  into  it  and  enough  milk  is  added  to  the 
cylinder  to  fill  it  brim  full.  Now  place  your  eye  in  a  hori- 
zontal position  with  the  surface  of  the  liquid  and  read 
down  as  far  as  the  liquid  will  permit.  The  reading  thus 
obtained  is  the  correct  lactometer  reading,  provided  the 
temperature  as  indicated  by  the  thermometer  scale  is  60°. 

Corrections  for  Temperature.  Lactometers  are  stan- 
dardized at  a  temperature  of  60°  F. ;  but,  since  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  have  a  sample  always  at  this  temperature,  cor- 
rections may  be  made  for  temperatures  ranging  from  50° 
to  70°.  As  the  temperature  rises  the  liquid  expands  and 
the  specific  gravity  decreases.  This  decrease  amounts  to 

34 


LACTOMETER  AND  ITS  USE 


35 


one-tenth  of  a  lactometer  degree  for  every  degree  of  tem- 
perature above  60.  A  decrease  in  temperature  would 
result  in  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  specific  gravity. 
For  every  degree  below  60,  therefore,  we  subtract  one- 
tenth  degree  from,  and  for  every  degree  above  60  we 


Fig.   13. 
Lactom 
eter. 


Fig.  14.— Lactom- 
eter cylinder. 


Ex- 


add  one-tenth  degree  to,  the  lactometer  reading, 
amples : 

1.  Lactometer  reading  is  32.5  at  a  temperature  of  55. 
Corrected  reading  is  32.5  less  .5,  equals  32. 

2.  Lactometer  reading  is  31.7  at  a  temperature  of  63. 
Corrected  reading  is  31.7  plus  .3,  equals  32. 

Interpretation  of  Lactometer  Reading.  In  the  chap- 
ter on  milk  we  learned  that  normal  milk  has  an  average 


36  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

specific  gravity  of  1.032.  This  means  that  a  tank  that 
holds  just  1,000  pounds  of  water  would  hold  1,032  pounds 
of  milk.  On  the  lactometer  scale  the  i.o  is  omitted.  A 
reading  .of  32,  expressed  in  terms  of  specific  gravity, 
would  therefore  read  1.032. 

Precautions  in  Making  a  Lactometer  Test.  i.  A 
lactometer  test  should  not  be  made  until  three  or  four 
hours  after  the  milk  leaves  the  udder  of  the  cow.  The 
reason  for  this  is  that  milk,  immediately  after  it  is  drawn, 
holds  mechanically  mixed  with  it  air  and  probably  other 
gases,  which  tends  to  give  too  low  a  reading. 

2.  The  sample  must  be  thoroughly  mixed.    If  a  layer 
of  cream  is  allowed  to  form  at  the  surface,  the  conse- 
quence is  that  the  hollow  oblong  bulb  will  float  in  partially 
skimmed  milk  and  give  too  high  a  reading. 

3.  A  dirty  lactometer  is  certain  to  give  a  false  reading. 
A  lactometer  should  be  washed  in  luke  warm  (not  hot) 
water  to  which  a  little  soda  or  other  alkali  has  been  added, 
and  then  rinsed  off  with  clean  water  and  wiped. 

II.     MILK  SOLIDS. 

The  solids  of  milk  include  everything  but  the  water. 
If  a  sample  of  milk  be  kept  at  the  boiling  temperature 
until  all  the  water  is  evaporated,  the  dry,  solid  residue 
that  remains  constitutes  the  solids  of  milk.  It  is  con- 
venient to  divide  the  solids  into  two  classes,  one  inclu- 
ding all  the  fat,  the  other  all  the  solids  which  are  not  fat. 
In  referring,  therefore,  to  the  different  solids  of  milk,  we 
speak  of  the  "fat"  and  the  "solids  not  fat"  which,  to- 
gether, constitute  the  "total  solids."  The  amount  of  each 
of  these  different  solids  present  in  milk  is  easily  seen  from 
the  composition  of  milk.  Thus,  besides  water,  milk  con- 
tains : 


LACTOMETER  AND  ITS  USB  37 

3.9^  fat 

2.9$  casein 

0.5^  albumen    , 

4.9^  sugar  =  sollds  not  fat 

0.7$  ash 


Total  i2.9#=total  solids. 

Relationship  of  Fat  and  Solids  not  Fat.  In  normal 
milk  a  fairly  definite  relationship  exists  between  the  fat 
and  the  solids  not  fat.  For  example,  milk  rich  in  fat  is 
likewise  rich  in  solids  not  fat.  On  the  other  hand,  milk 
poor  in  fat  is  also  poor  in  solids  not  fat.  As  a  general 
rule,  an  increase  in  the  solids  not  fat  always  accompanies 
an  increase  in  the  percentage  of  fat.  The  increase  is, 
however,  not  quite  proportionate,  the  fat  increasing  the 
more  rapidly. 

Since  the  casein  represents  the  most  valuable  constitu- 
ent of  the  solids  not  fat,  the  following  ratio  between  this 
substance  and  the  fat  very  well  illustrates  the  relation- 
ship that  exists  between  the  fat  and  solids  not  fat  in  milk : 

According  to  Van  Slyke. 

Per  cent  fat.  Per  cent  casein. 

3.00  2.10 

3.25  2.20 

3-50  2.30 

3-75  2.40 

4.00  2.50 

4.25  2.60 

4.50  2.70 

Specific  Gravity  as  Affected  by  Richness  of  Milk. 

The  richness  of  milk  seems  to  have  but  a  very  slight 
effect  on  its  specific  gravity.  Usually  a  four  per  cent 
milk  shows  a  slightly  higher  reading  than  a  three  per 


38  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

cent  milk,  but  the  specific  gravity  of  a  four  per  cent  milk 
is  practically  the  same  as  that  of  a  four  and  one-half  per 
cent  milk.  From  what  has  been  said  about  the  relation- 
ship of  the  fat  and  solids  not  fat  in  milks  of  different 
richness,  it  is  quite  natural  that  the  specific  gravity  of 
such  milks  should  vary  but  little.  If  the  fat  alone  were 
increased,  the  lactometer  reading  would  naturally  be  de- 
pressed. But  since  the  solids  not  fat  increase  in  nearly 
the  same  proportion  as  the  fat,  the  depression  caused  by 
the  latter  is  compensated  for  by  the  former. 

Calculation  of  Milk  Solids.  The  milk  solids  are  cal- 
culated from  the  fat  and  the  lactometer  reading  of  milk. 
This  is  done  by  means  of  the  following  formula  worked 
out  at  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  : 

Formula  for  solids  not  fat  equals  one-fourth  L  R  plus 
one-fifth  F,  in  which  L  stands  for  lactometer,  R  for 
reading,  and  F  for  fat.  Expressed  in  another  way,  the 
solids  not  fat  are  obtained  by  adding  one-fifth  of  the  fat 
to  one-fourth  of  the  lactometer  reading.  The  total  solids 
are  obtained  by  adding  the  fat  to  the  solids  not  fat. 
Examples  : 

i.  To  calculate  solids  not  fat  when  the  milk  shows  a 
lactometer  reading  of  31.6  and  fat  reading  of  3.5.  Sub- 
stituting these  figures  for  the  letters  in  the  formula,  -one- 
fourth  L  R  plus  one-fifth  F,  we  get  : 

l   C  Q  Ci  v 

£-    plus    -il    equals     (7.9    plus    .7)    equals  8.6    equals 


solids  not  fat. 

2.  The  total  solids  in  the  above  sample  are  obtained 
by  adding  the  fat  and  solids  not  fat.  Thus  :  8.6  plus  3.5 
equals  12.1  equals  total  solids. 


LACTOMETER  AND  ITS  U$£  39 

III.      DETECTION  OF  MILK  ADULTERATION — WATERING  AND 
SKIMMING. 

A  knowledge  of  the  methods  of  detecting  watering  and 
skimming  of  milk  is  in  many  cases  of  considerable  value 
to  butter  makers,  even  when  the  milk  is  bought  on  the  fat 
basis.  Where  the  milk  is  bought  irrespective  of  its  fat 
content,  such  a  knowledge  is  simply  indispensable  for  the 
welfare  of  the  creamery. 

In  normal  milk  ranging  in  fat  from  3%  to  5  %,  it  is 
not  difficult  to  detect  a  moderate  amount  of  watering  and 
skimming.  We  speak  of  normal  milk  because  this  means 
the  milk  from  a  full  milking  and  excludes  colostrum  milk, 
milk  from  diseased  cows  and  those  far  advanced  in  lacta- 
tion. Normal  milk  cannot  be  expected  when  cows  are 
either  only  partially  milked,  diseased,  or  very  far  ad- 
vanced in  lactation. 

The  accuracy  of  determining-  the  amount  of  watering 
and  skimming  becomes  greater  in  proportion  as  the  sam- 
ple represents  more  cows.  For  example,  no  sample  of 
rnilk  from  a  herd  consisting  of  six  or  more  cows  has  been 
known  to  average  below  3%  fat.  For  this  reason  any 
sample  of  milk  testing  below  3%,  when  taken  from  a 
herd,  is  to  be  looked  upon  with  suspicion.  On  the  other 
hand  there  are  records  of  individual  cows  that  show  tests 
as  low  as  1.7%  and  as  high  as  8%.  It  is  owing  to  these 
extreme  variations  in  the  composition  of  milk  from  indi- 
vidual cows,  that  small  amounts  of  adulteration  cannot 
be  estimated  with  the  same  degree  of  accuracy  in  such 
milk  as  in  herd  milk. 

Detection  of  Adulteration.  The  general  procedure  in 
determining  whether  milk  has  been  watered  or  skimmed, 
or  both,  is  as  follows : 


40  CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 

1.  Determine  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  sample  under 
consideration. 

2.  Determine  its  specific  gravity. 

3.  From  the  fat  and  specific  gravity  calculate  the  solids 
not  fat  and  total  solids. 

4.  Compare   the   results   obtained   with   the   average 
specific    gravity,    per   cent    of    fat,    solids    not    fat,    and 
total   solids   given    for   normal   cows'   milk,   or   compare 
with  the  legal  State  Standard. 

5.  In  drawing  conclusions  remember  that 

a.  Fat  is  lighter  than  water. 

b.  Milk  is  heavier  than  water. 

c.  Skimming  increases  the  lactometer  reading. 

d.  Skimming  slightly  increases  solids  not  fat. 

e.  Skimming  decreases  fat  and  total  solids. 

f.  Watering  decreases  fat,  solids  not  fat,  lac- 

tometer reading,  and  total  solids. 

g.  Watering  and  skimming  decrease  fat  (ma- 

terially), solids  not  fat,  and  total  solids. 
h.     The  solids  not  fat  are  less  variable  than  the 

fat. 
i.     Skimming  and  watering  may  give  a  normal 

lactometer  reading. 

From  i  it  is  seen  that  a  normal  lactometer  reading 
is  possible  when  milk  is  skimmed  and  watered  in  the  right 
proportions.  A  lactometer  reading  without  a  Babcock 
test  is  therefore  worthless. 

For  herd  milk  a  lactometer  reading  above  33.5  is  posi- 
tive evidence  of  skimming  when  accompanied  with  a  low 
percentage  of  fat.  Herd  milk  showing  a  lactometer  read- 
ing below  28  is  considered  watered. 

Examples  of  milk  adulteration  in  which  only  herd  milk 
is  considered  are  given  as  follows : 


LACTOMETER  AND  ITS  USE  41 

I.  Suspected  sample  shows:  Normal  milk  shows: 

Lactometer  reading 32  Lactometer   reading 32 

Fat    2.5       Fat   3.9 

Solids    not    fat 8.5        Solids  not  fat 8.78 

Total   solids ii.o       Total  solids 12.68 

Conclusion :  Sample  is  watered  and  skimmed  because 
(a)  lactometer  reading  is  normal  and  fat  Iqw ;  (b)  solids 
not  fat  are  nearly  normal  and  total  solids  low. 

2.  Suspected  sample  shows: 

Lactometer  reading 33.2 

Fat    3.1 

Solids  not  fat 8.92 

Total  solids   12 . 02 

Conclusion:  Sample  is  skimmed  because  lactometer 
reading  is  high  and  fat  low. 

3.  Suspected  sample  shows : 

Lactometer  reading  shows 29 

Fat    3.4 

Solids  not  fat 7 . 93 

Total  solids  1 1 . 33 

Conclusion :  Sample  is  watered  because  everything 
is  much  below  normal,  which  is  to  be  expected  in  the  case 
of  watered  milk. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

BACTERIA    AND    MILK    FERMENTATIONS. 

A  thorough  knowledge  of  bacteria  and  their  action 
forms  the  basis  of  success  in  butter  making.  Indeed  the 
man  who  is  lacking  such  knowledge  is  making  butter 
in  the  dark;  his  is  chance  work.  Much  attention  will 
therefore  be  given  to  the  study  of  these  organisms  in 
this  work. 

I.      BACTERIA. 

The  term  bacteria  is  applied  to  the  smallest  of  living 
plants,  which  can  be  seen  only  under  the  highest  powers 
of  the  miscroscope.  Each  bacterium  is  made  up  of  a 
single  cell.  These  plants  are  so  small  that  it  would 
require  30,000  of  them  laid  side  by  side  to  measure  an 
inch.  Their  presence  is  almost  universal,  being  found 
in  the  air,  water,  and  soil ;  in  cold,  hot,  and  temperate 
climates;  and  in  living  and  dead  as  well  as  inorganic 
matter. 

Bacteria  grow  with  marvelous  rapidity.  A  single  bac- 
terium is  capable  of  reproducing  itself  a  million  times 
in  twenty- four  hours.  They  reproduce  either  by  a  simple 
division  of  the  mother  cell,  thus  producing  two  new  cells, 
or  by  spore  formation  in  which  case  the  contents  of  the 
mother  cell  are  formed  into  a  round  mass  called  a  spore. 
These  spores  have  the  power  of  withstanding  unfavorable 
conditions  to  a  remarkable  extent,  some  being  able  to 
endure  a  temperature  of  212°  F.  for  several  hours. 

Most  bacteria  require  for  best  growth  'a  moist,  warm, 
and  nutritious  medium  such  as  is  furnished  by  milk,  in 

42 


BACTERIA  AND  MILK  FERMENTATIONS         43 

which  an  exceedingly  varied  and  active  life  is  possible. 
In  nature  and  in  many  of  the  arts  and  industries, 
bacteria  are  of  the  greatest  utility,  if  not  indispensable. 
They  play  a  most  important  part  in  the  disintegration  of 
vegetable  and  animal  matter,  resolving  compounds  into 
their  elemental  constituents  in  which  form  they  can  again 
be  built  up  and  used  as  plant  food.  In  the  art  of  butter 
and  cheese  making  bacteria  are  indispensable.  The  to- 
bacco, tanning,  and  a  host  of  other  industries  cannot 
flourish  without  them. 

ii.    MiiyK  FERMENTATIONS. 

Definition.  In  defining  fermentation  processes,  Conn 
says  that,  "In  general,  they  are  progressive  chemical 
changes  taking  place  under  *  the  influence  of  certain 
organic  substances  which  are  present  in  very  small 
quantity  in  the  fermenting  mass." 

With  few  exceptions,  milk  fermentations  are  the  result 
of  the  growth  and  multiplication  of  various  classes  of 
bacteria.  The  souring  of  milk  illustrates  a  typical  fer- 
mentation, which  is  caused  by  the  action  of  lactic  acid 
bacteria  upon  the  milk  sugar  breaking  it  up  into  lactic 
acid.  Here  the  chemical  changers  conversion  of  sugar 
into  lactic  acid. 

The  most  common  fermentations  of  milk  are  the  fol- 
lowing : 

f"  Lactic. 

Normal -j    Curdling  and  Digesting. 

[  Butyric. 

Milk  Fermentations    ^  /-  -r,. 

I   Slimy  or  Ropy. 
Abnormal...  -j   Gassy, 
j   Toxic. 
[  Chromogenic. 


44  CREAMERY   BUTTER   MAKING 

NORMAL  FERMENTATIONS. 

We  speak  of  normal  fermentations  because  milk  always 
contains  certain  classes  of  bacteria  even  when  drawn  and 
kept  under  cleanly  conditions.  These  fermentations  will 
be  discussed  in  the  following  pages. 

i.     LACTIC  FERMENTATION. 

This  is  the  most  common  and  by  far  the  most  important 
fermentation  of  milk.  Indeed  it  is  indispensable  in  the 
manufacture  of  butter  of  the  highest  quality.  The  germ 
causing  this  fermentation  is  called  Lactici  Acidi.  It  is 
non-spore  bearing  and  has  its  optimum  growth  tempera- 
ture between  90°  and  98°  F.  At  40°  its  growth  ceases. 
Exposed  to  a  temperature  of  140°  for  fifteen  minutes 
it  is  killed. 

The  souring  of  milk  and  cream,  as  already  mentioned, 
is  due  to  the  action  of  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  upon  the 
milk  sugar  changing  it  into  lactic  acid.  Acid  is  therefore 
always  produced  at  the  expense  of  milk  sugar.  But  the 
sugar  is  never  all  converted  into  acid  because  the  pro- 
duction of  acid  is  limited.  When  the  acidity  reaches 
about  .9%  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  are  either  checked  or 
killed  and  the  production  of  acid  ceases.  Owing  to  the 
universal  presence  of  these  bacteria  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  secure  milk  free  from  them. 

Under  cleanly  conditions  the  lactic  acid  type  of  bacteria 
always  predominates  in  milk.  When,  however,  milk  is 
drawn  under  uncleanly  conditions  the  lactic  organisms 
may  be  outnumbered  by  other  species  of  "bacteria  which 
give  rise  to  the  numerous  taints  often  met  with  in  milk. 

Contradictory  as  it  may  seem,  the  lactic  acid  bacteria 
are  alike  friend  and  foe  to  the  butter  maker.  Creamery 


BACTERIA  AND  MILK  FERMENTATIONS          45 

patrons  are  expected  to  have  milk  as  free  as  possible 
from  these  germs  so  that  it  may  arrive  at  the  creamery 
in  a  sweet  condition.  They  are  therefore  expected  to 
thoroughly  cool  and  care  for  it,  not  alone  to  suppress 
the  action  of  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  but  also  that  of  the 
abnormal  species  that  might  have  gained  access  to  the 
milk. 

While  the  acid  bacteria  are  objectionable  in  milk,  in 
cream  made  into  butter  they  are  indispensable.  The 
highly  desirable  aroma  in  butter  is  the  result  of  the 
growth  of  these  organisms  in  the  process  of  cream 
ripening.  There  are  a  number  of  different  species  of 
bacteria  that  have  the  power  of  producing  lactic  acid. 

2.      CURDLING  AND  DIGESTING   FERMENTATION. 

In  point  of  numbers  this  class  of  bacteria  ranks  perhaps 
next  to  the  lactic  acid  type.  Indeed  it  is  very  difficult  to 
obtain  milk  that  does  not  contain  them.  It  is  not  often, 
however,  that  their  presence  is  noticeable  owing  to  their 
inability  to  thrive  in  an.  acid  medium. 

According  to  bacteriologists  most  of  these  bacteria 
secrete  two  enzymes,  one  of  which  has  the  power  of 
curdling  milk,  the  other  of  digesting  it.  The  former 
has  the  power  of  rennet,  the  latter  of  trypsin.  "As  a 
rule,"  says  Russell,  "any  organism  that  possesses  the 
digestive  power,  first  causes  a  coagulation  of  the  casein 
in  a  manner  comparable  to  rennet." 

It  is  only  occasionally  when  the  lactic  acid  organisms 
Are  in  a  great  minority,  or  when  for  some  reason  their 
action  has  been  suppressed,  that  this  class  of  bacteria 
manfests  itself  by  curdling  milk  while  sweet.  The  curd 
thus  formed  differs  from  that  produced  by  lactic  acid  in 
being  soft  and  slimy. 


46  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

Most  of  the  curdling  and  digesting  bacteria  are  spore 
bearing  and  can  thus  withstand  unfavorable  conditions 
better  than  the  lactic  acid  bacteria,  For  this  reason  milk 
that  has  been  heated  sufficiently  to  kill  the  lactic  acid 
bacteria,  will  often  undergo  the  undesirable  changes 
attributable  to  the  digesting  and  curdling  organisms. 

3.    BUTYRIC  FERMENTATION. 

It  was  mentioned  that  many  bacteria  have  the  power 
of  producing  lactic  acid  but  that  the  true  lactic  acid  fer- 
mentation is  probably  caused  by  a  single  species.  So  it 
is  with  the  butyric  acid  bacteria.  While  a  number  of 
different  organisms  are  known  to  produce  this  acid,  Conn 
is  of  the  opinion  that  the  common  butyric  fermentation 
of  milk  and  cream  is  due  to  a  single  species  belonging 
to  the  anaerobic  type. 

The  butyric  acid  produced  by  these  organisms  is  the 
chief  cause  of  rancid  flavors  in  cream  and  butter.  These 
bacteria  are  widely  distributed  in  nature,  being  particu- 
larly abundant  in  filth.  They  are  almost  universally 
present  in  milk,  from  which  they  are  hard  to  eradicate 
on  account  of  their  resistant  spores.  It  is  on  account 
of  these  spores  and  their  ability  to  grow  in  the  absence 
of  oxygen  that  the  butyric  fermentation  is  often  found 
in  ordinary  sterilized  milk  from  which  the  air  has  been 
excluded. 

The  influence  of  the  butyric  acid  bacteria  is  felt  mainly 
in  butter  and  in  overripened  cream.  The  latter  frequently 
possesses  a  rancid  odor  which  must  be  charged  to  these 
bacteria,  especially  since  it  is  known  that  overripened 
cream  possesses  conditions  favorable  for  their  develop- 
ment. Overripening  should,  therefore,  be  carefully 
guarded  against. 


BACTERIA  AND  MILK  FERMENTATIONS          47 

The  butyric  fermentation  is  rarely  noticeable  during 
the  early  stage  of  cream  ripening  and  its  subsequent 
development  in  a  highly  acid  cream  is  explained  by 
Russell  as  being  "probably  due,  not  so  much  to  the  pres- 
ence of  lactic  acid,  as  to  the  absence  of  dissolved  oxygen, 
which  at  this  stage  has  been  used  up  by  the  lactic  acid 
organisms." 

Butter  that  is  apparently  good  in  quality  when  freshly 
made,  will  usually  turn  rancid  when  kept  at  ordinary 
temperatures  a  short  time.  The  quickness  with  which 
this  change  comes  is  dependent  largely  upon  the  amount 
of  acid  present  in  cream  at  the  time  of  churning.  Butter 
made  from  cream  in  which  the  maximum  amount  of  acid 
consistent  with  good  flavor  has  been  developed,  usually 
possesses  poor  keeping  quality.  This  seems  to  indi- 
cate that  at  least  part  of  the  rancidity  that  develops  in 
butter  after  it  is  made  is  due  to  the  butyric  acid  bacteria, 
while  light  and  air,  doubtless,  also  contribute  much  to 
this  end. 

ABNORMAL  FERMENTATIONS. 

No  trouble  needs  to  be  anticipated  from  these  fermenta- 
tions so  long  as  cleanliness  prevails  in  the  dairy.  The 
bacteria  that  belong  to  this  class  are  usually  associated 
with  filth,  and  dairies  that  become  infested  with  them 
show  a  lack  of  cleanliness  in  the  care  and  handling  of  the 
milk.  Since  milk  is  frequently  infected  with  one  or 
another  of  these  abnormal  fermentations  a  brief  discus- 
sion will  be  given  of  the  most  important. 

i.    BITTER  FERMENTATION. 

Bitter  milk  and  cream  are  quite  common  and  there  are 
several  ways  in  which  this  bitterness  is  imparted :  it  may 


48  CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 

be  due  to  strippers'  milk  and  to  certain  classes  of  feeds 
and  weeds,  but  most  frequently  to  bacteria.  This  class 
of  bacteria  has  not  yet  been  studied  very  thoroughly  but 
we  know  a  great  deal  about  it  in  a  practical  way.  In 
milk  and  cream  in  which  the  action  of  the  lactic  acid 
germs  has  been  suppressed  by  low  temperatures,  bitter- 
ness due  to  the  development  of  the  bitter  fermentation  is 
almost  certain  to  be  noticeable.  When  the  temperature 
is  such  as  to  cause  a  rapid  development  of  the  lactic 
fermentation,  the  bitter  fermentation  is  rarely,  if  ever, 
present.  It  is  quite  evident  from  this  that  the  bitter 
organisms  are  capable  of  growing  at  much  lower  tem- 
peratures than  the  lactic  and  that  so  long  as  the  latter 
are  rapidly  growing  the  bitter  fermentation  is  held  in 
check. 

This  teaches  us  that  it  is  not  safe  to  ripen  cream  below 
60°  F.  The  author  has  found  that  cream  quickly  ripened 
and  then  held  at  a  temperature  of  45°  for  twenty-four 
hours  would  show  no  tendency  toward  bitterness,  while 
the  same  cream  held  sweet  at  45°  for  twenty- four  hours 
and  then  ripened  would  develop  a  bitter  flavor.  This 
indicates  that  the  lactic  acid  is  unfavorable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  bitter  fermentation. 

The  bitter  germs  produce  spores  capable  of  resisting 
the  boiling  temperature.  This  accounts  for  the  bitter 
taste  that  often  develops  in  boiled  milk. 

2.       SUMY   OR   ROPY    FERMENTATION. 

This  is  not  a  common  fermentation  and  rarely 
causes  trouble  where  cleanliness  is  practiced  in  the  dairy. 
The  bacteria  that  produce  it  are  usually  found  in  impure 
water,  dust,  and  dung.  These  germs  are  antagonistic  to 


BACTERIA  AND  MILK  FERMENTATIONS          49 

the  lactic  organisms  and  for  this  reason  milk  infected 
with  them  sours  with  great  difficulty. 

The  action  of  this  class  of  bacteria  is  to  increase  the 
viscosity  of  milk,  which  in  mild  cases  simply  assumes  a 
slimy  appearance.  In  extreme  cases,  however,  the  milk 
develops  into  a  ropy  consistency,  permitting  it  to  be 
strung  out  in  threads  several  feet  long. 

Slimy  or  ropy  milk  cannot  be  creamed  and  is  therefore 
worthless  in  the  manufacture  of  butter.  Such  milk  should 
not  be  confused  with  gargety  milk  which  is  stringy  when 
drawn  from  the  cow.  The  bacteria  belonging  to  this  class 
are  easily  destroyed  as  they  do  not  form  spores. 

3.  GASSY  FERMENTATION. 

This  is  an  exceedingly  troublesome  fermentation  in 
cheese  making  and  is  also  the  cause  of  much  poor  flavored 
butter.  The  gas  germs  are  very  abundant  during  the 
warm  summer  months  but  are  scarcely  noticeable  in 
winter.  Like  the  bitter  germs,  they  are  antagonistic  to 
the  lactic  acid  bacteria  and  do  not  grow  during  the  rapid 
development  of  the  latter.  They  are  found  most  abun- 
dantly in  the  barn,  particularly  in  dung. 

4.  TOXIC  FERMENTATIONS. 

Toxic  or  poisonous  products  are  occasionally  developed 
in  milk  as  a  result  of  bacterial  activity.  They  are  most 
commonly  found  in  milk  that  has  been  kept  for  some 
time  at  low  temperature. 

5.      CHROMOGENIC  FERMENTATIONS. 

Bacteria  belonging  to  this   class   have  the  power   of 
imparting  to  milk  various  colors.     The  most  common  of 
4 


50  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

these  is  blue.  It  is,  however,  not  often  met  with  in  dairy 
practice  since  the  color  usually  does  not  appear  until  the 
milk  is  several  days  old.  The  specific  organism  that 
causes  blue  milk  has  been  known  for  more  than  half  a 
century  and  is  called  cyanogenous.  Another  color  that 
rarely  turns  up  in  dairy  practice  is  produced  by  a  germ 
known  as  prodigiosis,  causing  milk  to  turn  red.  Other 
colors  are  produced  such  as  yellow,  green,  and  black,  but 
these  are  of  very  rare  occurrence. 


CHAPTER  V. 

COMPOSITE    SAMPLING. 

Where  milk  is  bought  on  the  fat  basis,  it  is  essential 
that  it  be  sampled  daily  as  it  arrives  at  the  creamery.  It 
is  not  practicable,  however,  to  make  daily  tests  of  the 
samples  because  this  would  involve  too  much  work.  Each 
patron  is  therefore  provided  with  a  pint  jar  to  which 
samples  of  his  milk  are  added  daily  for  one  or  two 
weeks,  the  sample  thus  secured  being  called  a  composite 
sample.  A  test  of  this  composite  sample  represents  the 
average  percentage  of  butter  fat  in  the  milk  for  the  period 
during  which  the  sample  was  gathered. 

Careful  experiments  have  shown  that  quite  as  accurate 
results  can  be  obtained  with  the  composite  method  of 
testing  as  is  possible  by  daily  tests,  besides  saving  a  great 
deal  of  work.  This  has  lead  to  its  universal  adoption 
wherever  milk  is  bought  by  the  Babcock  test. 

All  composite  jars  should  be  carefully  labeled  by  plac- 
ing numbers  upon  them.  These  numbers  should  be  writ- 
ten in  large  indelible  figures  as  exhibited  by  the  composite 
jar  shown  in  Fig.  15.  Shelves  are  provided  in  the  intake 
upon  which  the  jars  are  arranged  in  regular  consecutive 
order.  Numbers  corresponding  to  those  on  the  jars  are 
placed  on  the  milk  sheet  opposite  the  names  of  the  patrons 
which  should  be  arranged  alphabetically. 

Taking  the  Samples.  Whatever  the  method  of  sam- 
pling, all  milk  should  be  sampled  immediately  after  it 
enters  the  weigh  can,  not,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  after 
it  is  weighed. 

51 


52  CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 

Most  of  the  sampling  is  done  by  either  of  two  methods : 
(i)  by  means  of  a  half  ounce  dipper,  shown  in  Fig.  16, 
or  (2)  by  means  of  long  narrow  tubes,  one  of  which  is 
shown  in  Fig.  17. 

The  dipper  furnishes  a  simple  and  easy  means  of 
sampling  milk.  Where  the  milk  is  thoroughly  mixed, 
and  the  variations  in  quantity  from  day  to  day  are  slight, 
the  dipper  method  of  sampling  is  accurate. 

The  other  method  of  sampling  is  illustrated  by  the 
Scovell  sampler  (Fig.  17).  The  main  tube  of  the  sampler 
is  open  at  both  ends,  the  lower  of  which  closely  fits  into 
a  cap  provided  with  three  elliptical  openings.  As  the 
sampler  is  lowered  into  the  milk  the  latter  rushes  through 
the  openings  filling  the  tube  to  the  height  of  the  milk  in 
the  can.  When  the  cap  strikes  the  bottom  of  the  can 
the  tube  slides  over  the  openings,  thus  permitting  the 
sample  to  be  withdrawn  and  emptied  into  the  composite 
jar. 

This  sampler  has  the  advantage  of  always  taking  an 
aliquot  portion  of  the  milk,  and  furnishing  an  accurate 
sample  when  the  sampling  is  somewhat  delayed,  because 
it  takes  as  much  milk  from  the  top  as  it  does  from  the 
bottom  of  the  can. 

The  McKay  sampler  designed  by  McKay,  works  on 
the  same  principle  as  the  Scovell  and  has  proven  very 
satisfactory. 

Preservatives.  Milk  cannot  be  satisfactorily  tested 
after  it  has  loppered  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  securing 
an  accurate  sample.  This  makes  it  necessary  to  add  some 
preservative  to  the  composite  samples  to  keep  them  sweet. 

The  best  preservatives  for  this  purpose  are  corrosive 
sublimate,  formalin,  and  bichromate  of  potash.  All  of 
these  are  poisons  and  care  must  be  taken  to  place  them 


COMPOSITE  SAMPLING 


53 


I 


Fig.  16.—  Milk 
sampler. 


Fig.  18.— 
Milk  thief. 


Fig.  17.— 
Scovell 
sampling 
tube. 


where  children,  and  others  unfamiliar  with  their  poison- 
ous properties,  can  not  have  access  to  them. 

The  bichromate  of  potash  and  corrosive  sublimate  can 
be  purchased  in  tablet  form,  each  tablet  containing  enough 
preservative  to  keep  a  pint  of  **ulk  sweet  for  about  two 


54  CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 

weeks.  The  tablets  color  the  milk  so  that  there  can  be 
no  mistake  about  its  unfitness  for  consumption. 

When  colorless  preservatives  are  used,  like  ordinary 
formalin  and  corrosive  sublimate,  a  little  analine  dye 
should  be  added  to  prevent  mistaking  the  identity  of 
milk  treated  with  these  preservatives. 

During  the  warm  summer  time  the  bichromate  of 
potash  is  not  as  satisfactory  as  either  of  the  other  two 
preservatives  mentioned,  because  of  its  comparative  weak- 
ness and  liability  to  interfere  with  the  test  when  too  much 
of  it  is  used.  When  the  bichromate  is  used  in  the  ordi- 
nary solid  form  not  more  than  a  piece  the  size  of  a  pea 
should  be  used,  otherwise  a  good,  clear  test  is  not  possible. 

For  spring,  fall,  and  winter  use,  however,  bichromate  of 
potash  is  excelled  by  no  other  preservative,  either  in 
cheapness,  or  safety  and  convenience  in  handling. 

Care  of  Composite  Samples.  It  is  a  duty  which  the 
butter  maker  owes  his  patrons  to  keep  the  sample  jars 
carefully  locked  up  in  the  refrigerator  when  not  in  use 
so  as  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  anyone's  tampering  with 
them.  This  will  serve  the  additional  purpose  of  excluding 
the  light  and  heat  from  the  samples,  for  they  will  keep 
but  a  short  time  when  exposed  to  light  and  heat. 

When  the  sample  jars  are  permitted  to  stand  a  few  days 
without  shaking,  the  cream  which  rises  will  dry  and 
harden,  especially  that  in  contact  with  the  sides  of  the 
jar,  so  that  it  becomes  difficult  to  secure  a  fair  sample 
on  testing  day  without  special  treatment  of  the  sample. 
This  is  prevented  by  giving  the  jar  a  rotary  motion  every 
time  a  sample  of  milk  is  added. 

It  is  important,  too,  that  the  covers  of  the  jars  fit  tight, 
otherwise  evaporation  takes  place,  resulting  in  an  in- 
creased test.  In  several  instances  the  author  has  ob- 


COMPOSITE  SAMPLING  55 

served  that  the  butter  maker  (?)  did  not  cover  the  jars 
at  all !  Can  we  wonder  why  patrons  complain  so  fre- 
quently about  the  testing?  Where  the  jars  are  kept 
uncovered  for  several  weeks  the  cream  is  in  a  condition 
in  which  it  can  not  be  reincorporated  with  the  milk  and 
the  Babcock  test  in  this  case  becomes  truly  a  snare  and 
delusion. 

Should  the  samples  show  any  dried  or  churned  cream 
on  testing  day,  the  sample  jars  must  be  placed  in  water  at 
a  temperature  of  110°  F.  for  five  or  ten  minutes  to  allow 
the  cream  or  butter  to  melt.  When  this  is  done  the 
sample  for  the  test  bottle  must  be  taken  instantly  after 
mixing,  as  the  melted  fat  separates  very  quickly. 

Frequency  of  Testing.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that 
if  enough  preservative  can  be  added  to  the  sample  jars  to 
keep  the  milk  sweet  for  a  month  or  longer  that  it  is  just 
as  well  to  make  monthly  tests  as  weekly.  Far  from  it.  Even 
if  the  milk  does  remain  sweet,  the  tendency  of  the  cream 
to  churn  and  become  dried  and  crusty  is  in  itself  sufficient 
protest  against  monthly  testing.  It  is  rare,  indeed,  that 
samples  that  have  been  kept  for  a  month  or  longer  can  be 
sampled  satisfactorily  without  warming  them  in  a  water 
bath,  which  means  a  great  deal  of  extra  work. 

The  best  tests  are  secured  when  the  samples  are  tested 
weekly  or  at  most  every  two  weeks.  When  the  tests 
are  made  weekly  it  rarely  becomes  necessary  to  warm  the 
samples  if  they  have  been  properly  cared  for.  Then, 
too,  if  an  error  is  made  anywhere  in  the  testing,  there 
are  three  other  tests  for  the  month  that  help  to  mini- 
mize it.  It  is  not  strange  at  all  that  a  sample  jar 
should  break  occasionally.  If  the  jar  should  contain  a 
whole  month's  milk  the  patron  is  deprived  of  his  test  for 


56 


CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 


that  month.  On  the  weekly  basis  of  testing  there  would 
still  be  three  tests  to  fall  back  on. 

Supervision  of  Test.  To  relieve  the  butter  maker 
from  any  suspicion  of  unfairness  or  carelessness  in  the 
testing  of  the  composite  samples,  one  or  two  of  the  patrons 
should  be  present  at  each  testing.  When  one  of  the 
patrons  thus  witnesses  the  details  of  the  testing  and  is 
furnished  with  a  copy  of  the  test,  the  butter  maker  is 
practically  exempt  from  the  suspicions  that  usually  rest 
upon  him,  no  matter  how  honest  or  careful  a  man  he 
may  be. 

Duplicate  Set  of  Jars.  Where  the  testing  is  not 
under  the  supervision  of  one  of  the  patrons,  some  butter 
makers  have  adopted  the  scheme  of  providing  a  double 
set  of  sample  jars.  After  the  test  is  made  the  jars,  instead 
of  being  emptied,  are  set  aside  for  a  week,  so  that  any- 
one who  has  any  complaint  to  offer  on  the  test  may  call 
on  the  buttermaker  for  a  retest,  another  set  of  sample 
jars  being  used  in  the  meantime. 

Composite  Cream  Samples.  When  cream  is  received 
in  good  condition,  the  method  of  composite  sampling  may 
be  employed  in  the  same  manner  as  with  milk. 


Fig.  15.— Composite 
test  jar. 


Glass  top  composite  jar. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CREAMING. 

Definition.  Milk  upon  standing  soon  separates  into 
two  portions,  one  called  cream,  the  other  skim-milk.  This 
process  of  separation  is  known  as  creaming,  and  is  due 
to  the  difference  in  the  specific  gravity  of  the  fat  and 
the  milk  serum.  The  fat  being  light  and  insoluble,  rises, 
carrying  with  it  the  other  constituents  in  about  the  same 
proportion  in  which  they  are  found  in  milk.  The  fat 
together  with  these  other  constituents  forms  the  cream. 
After  the  cream  has  been  skimmed  off,  there  remains  a 
more  or  less  fat- free  watery  portion  called  skim-milk. 

Processes  of  Creaming.  The  processes  by  which  milk 
is  creamed  may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes :  ( i ) 
that  in  which  milk  is  placed  in  shallow  pans  or  long 
narrow  cans  and  allowed  to  set  for  about  twenty-four 
hours,  a  process  known  as  natural  or  gravity  creaming; 
(2)  that  in  which  gravity  is  aided  by  subjecting  the  milk 
to  centrifugal  force,  a  process  known  as  centrifugal 
creaming.  The  centrifugal  force  has  the  effect  of  increas- 
ing the  force  of  gravity  many  thousands  of  times,  thus 
causing  an  almost  instantaneous  creaming.  This  force 
is  generated  in  the  cream  separator. 

Before  the  days  of  the  centrifugal  cream  separator, 
creameries  either  bought  the  milk  and  creamed  it  at  the 
creamery  by  the  gravity  process,  or  bought  and  gathered 
the  cream  that  had  been  creamed  at  the  farms  by  the  same 
process.  The  practice  of  gathering  cream  is  now  exten- 
sively employed  by  creameries  throughout  the  country; 

57 


58  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

but  the  cream  thus  gathered  is  largely  the  product  of 
the  cream  separator,  only  a  small  portion  being  still 
creamed  by  the  gravity  process.  The  discussion  on 
creaming  will  therefore  be  confined  to  the  centrifugal 
process. 

CRE)AM   SEPARATORS. 

History.  The  cream  separator  had  its  beginning  in 
1864  when  Prandtl,  of  Munich,  creamed  milk  by  means 
of  two  cylindrical  buckets  revolving  upon  a  spindle.  In 
1874  Lefeldt  constructed  a  separator  with  a  revolving 
drum  similar  to  the  later  hollow  bowl  separators.  This 
drum  had  a  speed  of  800  revolutions  per  minute.  But 
it  lacked  an  arrangement  permitting  a  continuous 
discharge  of  cream  and  skim-milk,  so  that  the  separator 
had  to  be  stopped  at  regular  intervals  when  the  cream 
was  skimmed  off,  the  skim-milk  removed,  and"  the  bowl 
refilled  for  the  next  separation. 

It  was  not  until  1879  .that  real  separators  appeared 
upon  the  market.  During  this  year  two  machines  were 
perfected  which  permitted  continuous  cream  and  skim- 
milk  discharges.  One  was  known  as  the  Danish  Weston, 
invented  in  Denmark,  the  other  the  De  Laval,  invented  in 
Sweden.  Both  of  these  separators  were  hollow  bowl 
machines. 

Other  separators  soon  followed  but  no  decided  improve- 
ment was  made  until  1891,  when  the  De  Laval  separator 
appeared  with  a  series  of  discs  inside  the  bowl  which 
had  the  effect  of  separating  the  milk  in  thin  layers,  thus 
increasing  both  the  efficiency  and  the  capacity  of  the 
separator.  Since  then  various  bowl  devices  have  been 
invented  by  numerous  separator  manufacturers. 


CREAMING  59 

Hand  separators  first  appeared  on  the  market  in  1886. 
They  are  extensively  used  on  dairy  farms  at  the  present 
time  and  are  rapidly  replacing  the  gravity  methods  of 
creaming. 

In  1887  a  machine  appeared  on  the  market  which  ex- 
tracted the  butter  directly  from  sweet  milk.  This  machine 
was  called  butter  extractor.*  The  butter  made  with 
the  extractor  was  inferior  in  quality  and  the  machine 
has  practically  gone  out  of  existence. 

Choice  of  Separator.  In  choosing  a  cream  separator 
we  should  be  guided  by  three  things:  i.  Efficiency  of 
skimming ;  2.  Power  required  to  operate ;  3.  Its  durability. 

I.      EFFICIENCY  OF  SKIMMING. 

Under  favorable  conditions  a  separator  should  not  leave 
more  than  .05%  fat  in  the  skim-milk  by  the  Babcock  test. 
There  are  a  number  of  conditions  that  affect  the  efficiency 
of  skimming  and  these  must  be  duly  considered  in  making 
a  separator  test.  The  following  are  some  of  these  con- 
ditions : 

A.  Speed  of  bowl.  ' 

B.  Steadiness  of  motion. 

C.  Temperature  of  milk. 

D.  Manner  of  heating  milk. 

E.  Amount  of  milk  skimmed  per  hour. 

F.  Acidity  of  milk. 

G.  Viscosity  of  milk. 
H.  Richness  of  cream. 

I.     Stage  of  lactation.       (Stripper's  milk.) 

A.  The  greater  the  speed  the  more  efficient  the  cream- 
ing, other  conditions  the  same.  It  is  important  to  see 


60  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

that  the  separator  runs  at  full  speed  during  the  separating 
process.  The  speed  indicator  should  always  be  applied 
before  turning  on  the  milk  and  several  times  during  the 
run.  Loose  belts,  pulleys  slipping  on  the  shaft,  and  low 
steam  pressure  will  reduce  the  speed  of  the  separator. 

B.  A  separator  should  run  as  smoothly  as  a  top.    The 
slightest  trembling  will   increase  the  loss  of  fat  in  the 
skim-milk.    Trembling  of  bowl  may  be  caused  by  any  of 
the  following  conditions:   (i)   loose  bearings,   (2)   sepa- 
rator out  of  plum,  (3)  dirty  oil  or  dirty  bearings,  (4)  un- 
stable foundation,  or  (5)  unbalanced  bowl. 

C.  The  best  skimming  is  not  possible  with  any  sepa- 
rator when  the  temperature  falls  below  60°  F.     A  tem- 
perature of  85°  F.  is  the  most  satisfactory  for  ordinary 
skimming.    Under  some  conditions  the  cleanest  skimming 
is  obtained  at  temperatures  above  100°  F.     The  reason 
milk  separates  better  at  the  higher  temperatures  is  that 
the  viscosity  is  reduced. 

D.  Sudden  heating  tends  to  increase  the  loss  of  fat 
in  skim-milk  in  ordinary  skimming.    The  reason  for  this 
is  that  the  fat  heats  more  slowly  than  the  milk  serum 
which  diminishes  the  difference  between  their  densities. 
When,  for  example,  milk  is  suddenly  heated  from  near 
the  freezing  temperature  to  85°  F.  by  applying  live  steam, 
the  loss  of  fat  in  the  skim-milk  may  be  four  times  as 
great  as  it  is  under  favorable  conditions.     If,  instead  of 
suddenly  heating  the  milk  to  85°,  it  is  heated  to  160°  or 
above,  then  no  extra  loss  of  fat  occurs.     Hence  the  ad- 
vantage of  separating  milk  at  pasteurizing  temperature 
during  the  winter. 

E.  Unduly  crowding  a  separator  increases  the  loss 
of  fat  in  the  skim-milk.     On  the  other  hand,  a  marked 
underfeeding  is  apt  to  lead  to  the  same  result. 


CREAMING  61 

F.  The   higher   the   acidity  of   milk   the   poorer   the 
creaming.     With  sour  milk  the  loss  of  fat  in  the  skim- 
milk  becomes  very  great.    This  emphasizes  the  importance 
of  having  the  milk  delivered  to  the  creamery  in  a  sweet 
condition. 

G.  Sometimes  large  numbers  of  undesirable  (slimy) 
bacteria  find  entrance  into  milk  and  materially  increase  its 
viscosity.     This  results  in  very  unsatisfactory  creaming. 
Low   temperatures   also   increase   the   viscosity   of   milk 
which  accounts  for  the  poor  skimming  at  these  tempera- 
tures. 

H.  Most  of  the  standard  makes  of  separators  will  do 
satisfactory  work  when  delivering  cream  of  a  richness  of 
50%.  A  richer  cream  is  liable  to  result  in  a  richer  skim- 
milk.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  in  rich  cream  the 
skim-milk  is  taken  close  to  the  cream  line  where  the  skim- 
milk  is  richest. 

I.  Owing  to  the  very  small  size  of  the  fat  globules 
in  stripper's  milk,  such  milk  is  more  difficult  to  cream 
than  that  produced  in  the  early  period  of  lactation. 

Keeping  the  Bearings  Clean.  To  insure  a  smooth  and 
easy  running  of  the  separator,  the  bearings  must  be  kept 
free  from  any  traces  of  gummyness  by  frequently  wash- 
ing them  with  kerosene  or  gasoline. 

SEPARATING  TEMPERATURE. 

During  the  summer  time,  when  milk  is  fresh  and  re- 
quires little  heating,  a  separating  temperature  of  70°  F. 
gives  good  results.  In  the  late  fall  and  during  the  winter, 
when  milk  is  received  cold  and  often  two  days  old,  it 
is  necessary  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  milk  to  85° 
before  separating.  When  milk  is  received  in  a  partly 
frozen  condition  or  when  permeated  with  bad  odors,  a 


62  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

separating  temperature  of  140°  to  170°  is  preferred. 
Whenever  such  high  temperatures  are  employed  it  is 
necessary  to  cool  the  cream  immediately  after  it  leaves  the 
separator  to  a  temperature  of  70°  or  lower. 

MIUC  HEATERS. 

There  are  to  be  found  upon  the  market  two  general 
classes  of  milk  heaters:  Those  which  admit  the  steam 
directly  to  the  milk  called  direct  heaters,  and  those  in 
which  the  steam  enters  a  jacket  surrounding  the  milk 
known  as  indirect  heaters. 

Direct  Heaters.  These  are  practically  nothing  more 
than  an  expansion  in  the  feed  pipe  in  which  the  steam 
enters  the  milk.  They  are  permissible  only  when  first  class 
steam  is  available  and  when  milk  is  to  be  heated  through 
a  short  range  of  temperature.  But  even  under  these  con- 
ditions indirect  heaters  are  always  preferred. 

The  two  main  objections  to  the  direct  heaters  are :  ( i ) 
the  liability  of  contaminating  the  milk  with  impure  steam, 
and  (2)  the  effect  of  the  sudden  heating  upon  the  loss  of 
fat  in  the  skimmilk  which  may  be  quite  considerable  when 
the  milk  is  heated  through  a  long  range  of  temperature. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  exhaustiveness  of  skimming 
with  any  separator  is  greatly  influenced  by  the  manner  in 
which  the  milk  is  heated.  In  general  very  sudden  heating 
has  the  effect  of  diminishing  the  difference  in  the  specific 
gravity  between  the  fat  and  milk  serum,  consequently 
rendering  the  separation  of  the  fat  from  the  milk  more 
difficult. 

In  experiments  conducted  by  the  author  it  was  found 
that  in  many  instances  where  the  milk  was  received  in  a 
partly  frozen  C9ndition  and  suddenly  heated  to  a  separat- 


CREAMING 


63 


ing  temperature  of  80°  to  85°  F.,  the  loss  of  fat  in  the 
skimmilk  was  from  .08%  to  .12%.  When,  however, 
such  milk  was  suddenly  heated  to  a  temperature  of  160° 
F.  or  above,  the  loss  of  fat  in  the  skimmilk  was  from 

.02%  tO  .03%. 

The  addition  of  water  to  the  milk  through  the  conden- 
sation of  the  steam  is  also  objectionable  in  heating  milk 
with  steam  direct. 

The  practice  of  turning  steam  into  milk  should  be 
abandoned. 


Fig.  19. -Milk  heater. 


Indirect  Heaters.  A  satisfactory  heater  of  this  class 
is  shown  in  Fig.  19.  In  this  heater  the  steam  passes  into 
a  series  of  hollow  discs,  which  is  in  motion  during  the 
heating  process,  agitating  the  milk  so  as  to  insure  uniform 
heating. 

A  heater  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  20  has  proven  satis- 
factory as  a  heater  and  has  the  further  advantage  of 
elevating  the  milk. 

RICHNESS  OF   CREAM. 

How  Regulated.      The  richness  of  cream  is  visually 


64 


CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 


regulated  by  means  of  a  cream  screw  in  the  separator 
bowl.  When  a  rich  cream  is  desired  the  screw  is  turned 
toward  the  center  of  the  bowl,  and  for  a  thin  cream  it  is 
turned  away  from  the  center. 

The  richness  of  cream 
is  also  affected  by  the 
rate  of  separation.  With 
all  separators  the  more 
milk  separated  per  hour 
and  the  lower  the  speed 
the  thinner  the  cream. 
Too  low  a  speed  always 
results  in  a  rich  skim- 
milk  and  poor  cream. 

Temperatures  between 
60°  and  90°  have  little 
effect  on  the  richness  of 

cream.  When,  how- 
Fig.  20. -Heater  and  Pasteurizer  which  ever,  the  temperature  is 

raised  to  140°  or  above, 
the  cream  becomes  thinner. 

Advantages  of  Rich  Cream.  In  whole  milk  cream- 
eries 45  %  is  about  the  ideal  richness  of  cream.  Where  a 
large  amount  of  starter  is  to  be  added  to  the  cream  it  is 
necessary  to  separate  a  rich  cream  so  that  the  starter 
will  not  bring  it  below  the  churning  richness. 

In  case  milk  is  tainted  it  is  desirable  to  separate  a  very 
heavy  cream  so  as  to  get  rid  of  as  much  milk  serum  as 
possible.  In  this  way  most  of  the  taints,  which  develop 
in  the  milk  serum,  can  be  gotten  rid  of.  The  cream  is  then 
reduced  to  churning  richness  with  starter,  or  partly  with 
starter  and  partly  with  fine  flavored  milk. 

The  fat  globules  in  a  rich  cream  are  close  together 


CREAMING  65 

which  permits  churning  at  a  comparatively  low  tempera- 
ture. The  chief  advantage  gained  in  this  is  the  greater 
exhaustiveness  of  churning. 

For  hand  separator  cream,  40%  should  be  placed  as 
the  limit. 

A  further  discussion  of  this  subject  will  be  found  on 
page  237. 

CREAM  COOLING. 

With  the  modern  cream  ripeners  no  special  cream 
cooler  is  necessary  since  the  cooling  is  very  quickly 
done  in  the  ripener.  Cream  should  be  cooled  to  about 
70°  F.  as  quickly  as  possible  after  separating.  Where  a 
large  amount  of  starter  is  used,  cream  may  be  satisfactorily 
ripened  at  65°  F. 
5 


CHAPTER  VII. 

CREAM    RIPENING. 

This  chapter  will  be  discussed  under  three  heads : 

Part      I.     Theory  and  Methods  of  Cream  Ripening. 
Part     II.     The  Control  of  the  Ripening  Process. 
Part  III.     Cream  Acid  Tests. 

PART  i. — THEORY  AND  METHODS  OF  CREAM  RIPENING. 

Cream  ripening  is  a  process  of  fermentation  in  which 
the  lactic  acid  organisms  play  the  chief  role.  In  every-day 
language,  cream  ripening  means  the  souring  of  the  cream. 
So  important  is  this  process  that  the  success  or  failure  of 
the  butter  maker  is  largely  determined  by  his  ability  to 
exercise  the  proper  control  over  it.  In  common  creamery 
practice  the  time  consumed  in  the  ripening  of  cream  varies 
from  six  to  twenty- four  hours  and  includes  all  the  changes 
which  the  cream  undergoes  from  the  time  it  leaves  the 
separator  to  the  time  it  enters  the  churn. 

Object.  The  ripening  of  cream  has  for  its  prime 
object  the  development  of  flavor  and  aroma  in  butter, 
two  qualities  usually  expressed  by  the  word  flavor.  In 
addition  to  this,  cream  ripening  has  several  minor  pur- 
poses, namely :  ( i )  renders  cream  more  easily  churnable ; 
(2)  obviates  difficulties  from  frothing  or  foaming  in 
churning;  (3)  permits  a  higher  churning  temperature; 
(4)  increases  the  keeping  quality  of  butter. 

Flavor.      This,  so  far  as  known  at  the  present  time, 


CREAM  RIPENJNG  67 

is  the  result  of  the  development  of  the  lactic  fermentation. 
If  other  fermentations  aid  in  the  production  of  this  im- 
portant quality  of  butter,  they  must  be  looked  upon  as 
secondary.  In  practice  the  degree  or  intensity  of  flavor 
is  easily  controlled  by  governing  the  formation  of  lactic 
acid.  That  is,  the  flavor  develops  gradually  with  the 
increase  in  the  acidity  of  the  cream.  Sweet  cream  butter 
for  example  is  almost  entirely  devoid  of  flavor,  while 
cream  with  an  average  richness  possesses  the  maximum 
amount  of  good  flavor  possible  when  the  acidity  has 
reached  .6%. 

Exhaustive  experiments  conducted  by  the  author  (See 
Rept.  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.,  1905)  show  that  the  desirable  butter 
flavor  develops  in  the  milk  serum  (skimmilk)  and  is 
absorbed  from  this  by  the  butterfat.  Such  absorption  may 
take  place  either  during  the  ordinary  course  of  cream 
ripening,  or  during  the  process  of  churning  as  would  be 
the  case  when  well  ripened  skimmilk  (starter)  is  added 
to  sweet  cream  and  the  mixture  churned  immediately. 
This  explains  why  in  creamery  practice  such  good  results 
have  been  obtained  by  churning  sweet  cream  immediately 
after  the  addition  of  a  large  amount  of  well  ripened 

starter. 

Churnability.  Practical  experience  shows  that  sour 
cream  is  more  easily  churnable  than  sweet  cream.  This 
is  explaiped  by  the  fact  that  the  development  of  acid  in 
cream  tends  to  diminish  its  viscosity.  The  concussion  pro- 
duced in  churning  causes  the  little  microscopic  fat  glob- 
ules to  flow  together  and  coalesce,  ultimately  forming  the 
small  granules  of  butter  visible  in  the  churn.  A  high 
viscosity  impedes  the  movement  of  these  globules.  It  is 


68  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

evident,  therefore,  that  anything  that  reduces  the  viscosity 
of  cream,  will  facilitate  the  churning. 

Asva  rule,  too,  the  greater  the  churnability  of  cream 
the  smaller  the  loss  of  fat  in  the  buttermilk. 

Frothing.  Experience  shows  that  ripened  cream  is 
less  subject  to  frothing  or  foaming  than  unripened.  This 
is  probably  due  to  the  reduced  viscosity  of  ripened  cream 
and  the  consequent  greater  churnability  of  same. 

Temperature.  Sour  cream  can  be  churned  at  higher 
temperatures  than  sweet  cream  with  less  loss  of  fat  in 
the  buttermilk.  This  is  of  great  practical  importance 
since  it  would  be  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  for  most 
creameries  to  get  low  enough  temperatures  for  the  suc- 
cessful churning  of  sweet  cream.  Indeed,  many  cream- 
eries fail  to  get  a  low  enough  churning  temperature  for 
ripened  cream. 

Keeping  Quality.  It  has  been  found  that  butter  with 
the  best  keeping  quality  is  obtained  from  well  ripened 
cream.  It  is  true,  however,  that  butter  made  from  cream 
that  has  been  ripened  a  little  too  far  will  posesss  very 
poor  keeping  quality.  An  acidity  of  .5%  should  be  placed 
as  the  limit  when  good  keeping  quality  is  desired. 

/ 

METHODS  OF  CREAM   RIPENING. 

There  are  three  ways  in  which  cream  is  ripened  at  the 
present  time : 

1.  By  the  unaided  development  of  the  lactic  fermenta- 
tion called  natural  ripening. 

2.  By  first  destroying  the  bulk  of  the  bacteria  in  cream 
by    heat    and   then    inoculating    same    with   cultures    of 
lactic  acid  bacteria.    This  method  is  known  as  pasteurised 
cream  ripening. 


CREAM  RIPENING  69 

3.  By  the  aided  development  of  the  lactic  fermenta- 
tion called  starter  ripening. 

I.       NATURAL  RIPENING. 

By  this  is  meant  the  natural  souring  of  the  cream.  In 
this  method  no  attempt  is  made  to  repress  the  abnormal 
fermentations  or  to  assist  in  the  development  of  the  lactic. 
From  the  chapter  on  Milk  Fermentations  we  have  learned 
that  milk  normally  contains  a  number  of  different  kinds 
of  germs,  frequently  as  many  as  a  dozen  or  more.  Natur- 
ally, therefore,  where  this  method  of  ripening  is  practiced, 
a  number  of  fermentations  must  go  on  simultaneously  and 
the  flavor  of  the  butter  is  impaired  to  the  extent  to  which 
the  abnormal  fermentations  have  developed.  If  the  cream 
is  clean  and  uncontaminated  the  lactic  fermentation 
greatly  predominates  and  the  resulting  flavor  is  good.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  cream  happens  to  contain  many  bad 
germs  the  probability  is  that  the  abnormal  ferments  will 
predominate  and  the  flavor  of  the  butter  will  be  badly 
"off." 

Where  cream  is  therefore  allowed  to  take  its  own  course 
in  ripening  the  quality  of  the  butter  is  a  great  uncertainty. 
This  method,  though  still  practiced  by  many  butter  rrtak- 
ers,  is  \o  be  condemned  as  obsolete  and  unsatisfactory. 

2.      PASTEURIZED  CREAM   RIPENING. 

Theoretically  and  practically  the  ideal  way  of  making 
butter  is  to  pasteurize  the  cream,  a  process  which  consists 
in  heating  cream  momentarily  to  a  temperature  of  160° 
to  185°  F.  and  then  quickly  cooling  to  60°  F.  In  this 
manner  most  of  the  bacteria  in  the  cream  are  destroyed. 
After  this  treatment  the  cream  is  heavily  inoculated  with 
the  lactic  acid  bacteria,  and  the  lactic  fermentation  is  given 


70  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

a  favorable  temperature  for  development.  When  cream 
is  treated  in  this  way  the  lactic  fermentation  is  practically 
the  only  one  present  and  a  butter  with  the  desirable  flavor 
and  aroma  is  the  result.  It  is  the  only  way  in  which  a 
uniform  quality  of  butter  can  be  secured  from  day  to  day. 
This  system  of  cream  ripening  is  almost  universally  fol- 
lowed in  Denmark,  whose  butter  is  recognized  in  all  the 
world's  markets  as  possessing  qualities  of  superior  excel- 
lence. The  method  is  also  gradually  gaining  favor  in 
America  and  its  general  adoption  can  only  be  a  matter  of 
time.  In  the  chapter  on  Cream  Pasteurization  this  method 
's  discussed  in  detail. 

3.      STARTER  RIPENING. 

This  method  of  ripening  consists  in  adding  "starters," 
jr  carefully  selected  sour  milk,  to  the  cream  after  it  leaves 
the  separator.  A  full  discussion  of  starters  will  be  found 
in  the  following  chapter. 

In  America  this  is  at  present  the  most  popular  method 
of  cream  ripening.  While  it  does  not,  and  can  not,  give 
the  uniformly  good  results  obtained  by  pasteurizing  the 
cream,  it  is  far  superior  to  natural  or  unaided  ripening. 

When  we  have  a  substance  which  contains  many  kinds 
of  bacteria,  there  naturally  follows  a  struggle  for  exist- 
ence and  the  fittest  of  the  species  will  predominate. 

We  always  have  a  number  of  different  types  of  bacteria 
in  cream,  both  desirable  and  undesirable.  The  latter  can 
be  held  in  check  by  making  the  conditions  as  favorable 
as  possible  for  the  former.  Fortunately,  when  milk  is 
properly  cared  for  the  latic  acid  germs  always  pre- 
dominate. But  where  milk  is  received  at  the  creamery 
from  30  to  200  patrons,  undesirable  germs  are  frequently 
present  in  such  large  numbers  as  to  seriously  endanger 


CREAM  RIPENING  71 

the  growth  of  the  lactic  acid  bacteria.  However,  when  a 
large  amount  of  starter  containing  only  lactic  acid  germs 
is  added  to  the  cream  from  such  milk  these  organisms  are 
certain  to  predominate. 

The  best  results  with  the  starter  method  are  secured 
when  the  milk  is  received  at  the  creamery  in  a  sweet 
condition  and  when  a  large  amount  of  starter  is  used. 
Generally  when  milk  is  received  in  a  sweet  condition, 
especially  during  the  summer  months,  it  indicates  that 
it  has  been  thoroughly  cooled  and  that  the  germs  are 
present  only  in  small  numbers.  When  the  cream  from 
such  milk  is  heavily  inoculated  with  lactic  acid  germs  by 
adding  a  starter,  the  development  of  the  lactic  fermenta- 
tion is  so  rapid  as  to  either  check  or  entirely  suppress  the 
action  of  undesirable  bacteria  that  may  be  present  in  the 
cream. 

PART  ii. — THE  CONTROL  OF  THE  RIPENING  PROCESS. 

In  Part  I  an  attempt  was  made  to  convey  some  idea 
as  to  our  present  theory  and  methods  of  cream  ripening. 
We  learned  that  the  highly  desirable  flavor  and  aroma 
of  butter  are  produced  by  the  development  of  the  lactic 
fermentation.  In  the  following  discussion  we  shall  take 
up  the  means  of  controlling  this  fermentation  and  treat 
of  the  more  mechanical  side  of  cream  ripening.  This 
will  include:  i.  The  time  the  starter  should  be  added  to 
the  cream ;  2.  The  amount  of  starter  to  be  added ;  3.  The 
ripening  temperature ;  4.  Time  in  ripening ;  5.  Agitation 
of  cream  during  ripening;  6.  Means  of  controlling  tem- 
perature. 

i.  The  value  of  a  starter  in  cream  ripening  has  already 
been  made  evident  in  the  discussion  of  the  theory  of  cream 
ripening.  To  secure  the  maximum  effect  of  a  starter  it 
should  be  added  to  the  cream  vat  soon  after  the  separation 


72  CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 

of  the  milk  has  begun  but  not  until  the  cream  has  reached 
a  temperature  of  70°  F.  The  cream  thus  coming  in  con- 
tact with  the  starter  as  it.  leaves  the  separator  insures  a 
vigorous  development  of  the  starter  germs,  so  that  by  the 
time  the  separation  is  completed,  the  starter  fermentation 
is  almost  certain  to  predominate,  especially  when  a  large 
amount  of  starter  is  used. 

2.  The  maximum  amount  of  starter  that  may  be  con- 
sistently used  is  one  pound  to  two  pounds  of  cream.     A 
larger  amount  than  this  would  be  liable  to  result  in  too 
thin   a    cream.      Experience  teaches   us   that   the   maxi- 
mum richness  of  cream  permissible  in  clean  skimming 
under  average  conditions  is  50%.    Adding  one  pound  of 
starter   to   two   pounds   of   such   cream   would   give   us 
a  33  J~3  %  cream,  the  ideal  richness  for  churning.     But 
this  amount  of  starter  is  rarely  permissible  on  account 
of  the  poor  facilities  for  controlling  the  temperature  of 
the  cream. 

3.  Since  the   lactic   acid  bacteria   develop   best   at   a 
temperature  of  90°  to  98°  F.  it  would  seem  desirable  to 
ripen    cream    at   these    temperatures.      But    this    is    not 
practicable  because  of  the  unfavorable  effect  of  high  tem- 
peratures on  the  body  of  the  cream  and  the  butter.    Good 
butter  can  be  produced,  however,  under  a  wide  range  of 
ripening  temperatures.     The  limits  may  be  placed  at  60° 
and  80°.     Temperatures  below  60°  are  too  unfavorable 
for  the   development  of  the  lactic  acid  bacteria.      Any 
check   upon,  the   growth   of   these   germs    increases   the 
chances  for  the  development  of  other  kinds  of  bacteria. 
But  it  may  be  added  that  when  cream  has  reached  an 
acidity  of  .4%  or  more,  the  ripening  may  be  finished  at  a 
temperature  between  55°  and  60°  with  good  results.     In 
general  practice  a  temperature  between  60°  and  70°  gives 


CREAM  RIPENING  73 

the  best -results.  This  means  that  the  main  portion  of  the 
ripening  is  done  at  this  temperature.  The  ripening  is 
always  finished  at  temperatures  lower  than  this. 

4.  As  a  rule  quick  ripening  gives  better  results  than 
slow.     The  reason  for  this  is  evident.     Quick  ripening 
means  a  rapid  development  of  the  lactic  fermentation  and, 
therefore,  a   relatively  slow  development  of  other   fer- 
mentations.     Practical    experience    shows    us    that   the 
growth  of  the  undesirable  germs  is  slow  in  proportion 
as  that  of  the  lactic  is  rapid.     For  instance,  when  we 
attempt  to  ripen  cream  at  55°  F.,  a  temperature  unfavor- 
able   for    the    growth    of    the    lactic    acid    bacteria,    a 
more  or  less  bitter  flavor  is  always  the  result.     This  is 
so  because  the  bitter  germs  develop  better  at  low  tempera- 
tures than  the  lactic  acid  bacteria. 

The  main  portion  of  the  ripening  should  be  done  in 
about  six  hours.  After  this  the  temperature  should  be 
gradually  reduced  to  a  point  at  which  the  cream  will  not 
overripen  before  churning. 

5.  It  is  very  essential  in  cream  ripening  to  agitate  the 
cream    frequently   to   insure   uniform    ripening.      When 
cream  remains  undisturbed  for  some  time  the  fat  rises 
in  the  same  way  that  it  does  in  milk,  though  in  a  less 
marked   degree.      The   result   is   that   the   upper   layers 
are  richer  than  the  lower  and  will  sour  less  rapidly,  since 
the  action  of  the  lactic  acid  germs  is  greater  in  thin  than 
in  rich  cream. 

This  uneven  ripening  leads  to  a  poor  bodied  cream. 
Instead  of  being  smooth  and  glossy,  it  will  appear 
coarse  and  curdy  when  poured  from  a  dipper.  The  im- 
portance of  stirring  frequently  during  ripening  should 
therefore  not  be  underestimated. 

6.  The  subject  of  cream  cooling  is  a  very  important 


74  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

one   and   will   be    discussed    under    the   head   of    cream 
ripeners. 

CREAM   RIPENERS. 

During  the  summer  months  much  butter  of  inferior 
quality  is  made  by  overripening  the  cream  and  churning 
at  too  high  a  temperature.  This  is  due  chiefly  to  a  lack 
of  proper  cooling  facilities.  With  the  open  cream  vats 
the  control  of  temperature  is  a  difficult  thing.  For- 
tunately these  vats  have  been  largely  replaced  by  the  more 
modern  cream  ripeners.  These  ripeners  possess  two 
important  advantages  over  the  open  vats,  namely:  first, 
they  permit  a  more  rapid  cooling  by  agitating  the  cream 
while  cooling ;  second,  they  maintain  a  more  uniform  tem- 
perature because  of  tight  fitting  covers  and  better  all 
round  construction. 

There  are  a  number  of  different  makes  of  ripeners  on 
the  market  that  are  giving  good  satisfaction. 

Since  some  of  these  ripeners  are  so  constructed  as  to 
render  the  addition  of  ice  to  the  water  in  them  impossible, 
they  can  not  therefore  be  considered  complete  without 
an  ice  water  attachment.  In  Fig.  21  an  ice  water  tank 
may  be  seen  attached  to  the  ripener. 

Tank  A  contains  ice  water  which  is  kept  circulating 
through  the  ripener  by  means  of  pump  B.  By  using  the 
water  over  and  over  again,  only  a  very  small  quantity 
of  ice  is  required  in  cooling  cream  to  the  desired  tempera- 
ture. When  the  great  cooling  power  of  ice  is  once  fully 
understood  it  is  easy  to  see  what  a  great  amount  of 
cooling  a  small  quantity  of  ice  will  do.  One  pound  of 
ice  in  melting  will  give  out  142  times  as  much  cold  as 
one  pound  of  water  raised  from  32°  to  33°  F.  In  other 


CREAM  RIPENING 


75 


words,  the  cooling  power  of  ice  is  142  times  as  great  as 
that  of  water. 

With  uniced  water,  a  low  temperature  is  not  possible. 
On  warm  days  the  ripener  may  be  run  during  the  greater 


Fig.  21.— Showing  method  of  circulating  ice  water  through  ripener. 

part  of  the  day  without  reducing  the  temperature  below 
56°  F.,  and  this  too  when  the  water  is  pumped  directly 
from  the  well  into  the  ripener.  It  is  rarely  possible  to 
obtain  a  lower  temperature  than  this  with  water  that  has 
a  temperature  of  51°  to  52°  F.  as  it  enters  the  ripener. 

When  we  compare  the  quick  cooling  with  iced  water 
and  the  slow  and  inadequate  cooling  with  uniced  water, 
it  is  easily  seen  that  the  saving  in  fuel  and  wear  and 
tear  of  machinery  will  more  than  cover  the  cost  of  the 
ice.  Moreover,  quick  cooling  has  a  very  important  ad- 
vantage in  cream  ripening.  It  permits  the  use  of  a  large 
amount  of  starter  which  is  not  possible  where  good  cool- 
ing facilities  are  not  at  hand.  Using  iced  water  makes 
it  possible  to  have  cream  with  the  same  degree  of  acidity 
365  days  in  the  year,  and  it  is  believed  that  the  general 


76  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

use  of  the  improved  cream  ripeners  and  ice  water  attach- 
ments will  result  in  a  great  improvement  in  both  the 
quality  and  uniformity  of  butter  and  do  away  with  the 
dangerous  practice  of  adding  ice  directly  to  the  cream. 

DANGER  OF  ADDING  ICE  TO  CREAM. 

Adding  ice  to  the  cream  is  a  pernicious  practice,  both 
because  of  its  tendency  to  lower  the  quality  of  the  butter 
and  of  the  danger  of  infecting  it  with  disease  producing 
germs.  This  is  so  because  most  of  the  ice  used  is  more 
or  less  contaminated  with  filth  and  various  kinds  of 
germs.  Moreover,  a  good  bodied  cream  cannot  be 
obtained  where  it  becomes  excessively  diluted  with  ice 
water.. 

Butter  makers  generally  realize  these  facts  but  are  often 
forced  into  the  practice  of  adding  ice  to  the  cream  because 
proper  cooling  facilities  are  not  available.  One  of 
the  contestants  in  the  Michigan  Butter  Scoring  Test 
writes  as  follows :  "The  ice  we  have  been  using  comes 
from  a  mill  pond,  a  very  filthy  hole.  I  did  not  use  it 
in  the  cream  until  July  when  I  was  obliged  to  in  order 
to  get  the  cream  cold  enough.  I  am  satisfied  that  is  one 
reason  my  butter  has  such  a  poor  flavor."  Compare  his 
scores  for  May  and  June  when  no  ice  was  used  in  the 
cream,  with  those  for  July  and  August  when  ice  was 
added.  Score  for  May,  92^  ;  score  for  June,  94 ;  score 
for  July,  87 ;  score  for  August,  88. 

WHEN  BUTTERMILK  MAY  BE  USED  AS  A  STARTER. 

Creameries  using  two  ripeners  and  finding  it  difficult 
to  get  enough  starter,  will  find  it  advantageous  to  ripen 
the  best  cream  with  a  good  starter  and  to  use  the  butter- 


CREAM  RIPENING  77 

milk  from  this  for  ripening  the  second  vat  of  cream;  or 
in  case  the  second  vat  consists  of  partly  soured  hand 
separator  cream  it  would  be  best  to  churn  this  cream  as 
soon  as  possible  after  the  addition  of  the  buttermilk. 

PART   III.      ACID  TESTS   FOR    MILK    AND   CREAM. 

Buttermakers  who  have  had  years  of  experience  and 
who  rank  high  in  the  profession  of  buttermaking  do  not 
find  it  safe  to  rely  upon  their  noses  in  determining  the 
ripeness  of  cream  for  churning.  They  use  in  daily  prac- 
tice tests  by  which  it  is  possible  to  determine  the  actual 
amount  of  acid  present.  The  method  of  using  these  tests 
is  based  upon  the  simplest  form  of  titration. 

Titration.  This  consists  in  neutralizing  an  acid  with 
an  alkali  in  the  presence  of  an  indicator  which  determines 
when  the  point  of  neutrality  has  been  reached. 

Acids  and  alkalies  are  substances  that  have  entirely 
opposite  chemical  properties.  The  acid  in  milk  gives  it 
its  sour  taste,  and  for  our  purpose,  illustrates  very  well 
what  we  mean  by  an  acid.  Ordinary  lime  may  be  used 
to  illustrate  what  we  mean  by  an  alkali. 

When  lime  is  added  to  sour  milk  the  acid  unites  with 
the  lime  forming  a  neutral  substance  which  is  neither 
alkaline  nor  acid.  If  we  keep  on  adding  lime  to  the  milk 
we  reach  a  point  at  which  all  the  acid  has  combined 
with  the  lime.  This  is  called  the  point  of  neutrality.  The 
moment  this  point  is  passed  is  made  visible  to  the  eye 
by  means  of  the  indicator,  (phenolphthalein)  which  is 
colorless  in  the  presence  of  an  acid  but  pink  in  the 
presence  of  an  alkali.  One  drop  of  alkali  added  to  milk 
after  the  acid  has  been  neutralized  will  turn  it  pink. 


78 


CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 


In  the  tests  used  for  milk  and  cream  the  alkali  used 
is  sodium  hydroxide.  This  is  made  up  of  a  definite 
strength  so  that  the  amount  of  acid  can  be  calculated 
from  the  amount  of  alkali  used. 

Kinds  of  Tests.  There  are  two  tests  in  general  use 
at  the  present  time:  one  devised  by  Prof.  Manns  and 

known   as   the   Manns'   Test; 

the    other    devised    by    Prof. 

Farrington  and  known  as  Far- 

rington's  Alkaline  Tablet  Test. 

MANNS'  TEST. 

The  apparatus  used  in  this 
test  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  22. 
It  consists  of  a  50  c.c.  burrette, 
a  50  c.c.  pipette,  a  small  fun- 
nel, and  a  glass  beaker  with 
stirring  rod.  The  alkali  (not 
shown  in  the  figure)  can  be 
bought  ready  made  in  gallon 
bottles  and  is  labeled  "neutral- 
izer."  This  alkali  or  neutral- 
izer  is  made  by  dissolving 
four  grams  of  sodium  hydroxide  in  enough  water  to  make 
one  liter  solution.  The  solution  thus  formed  is  called  a 
one-tenth  normal  solution,  each  cubic  centimeter  of  which 
contains  .004  of  a  gram  of  sodium  hydroxide  which  will 
neutralize  .009  of  a  gram  of  lactic  acid. 

Making  the  Test.  Measure  50  c.c.  of  cream  with  the 
pipette  into  the  beaker,  then  with  the  same  pipette  add 
50  c.c.  of  water.  Now  add  five  or  six  drops  of  indicator. 
Next  fill  the  burrette  to  the  zero  mark  with  the  neutralizer 


Fig.  22.  —Manns'  acid  test  appa- 
ratus. 


CREAM  RIPENING  79 

and  slowly  run  this  from  the  burrette  into  the  cream, 
shaking  the  beaker  after  each  addition  of  alkali.  With 
the  first  few  additions  of  alkali  the  pinkish  color  pro- 
duced quickly  disappears.  But  when  the  point  of  neu- 
trality approaches,  the  color  disappears  very  slowly  and 
the  neutralizer  must  be  added  drop  by  drop  only.  The 
moment  the  cream  remains  pink  indicates  that  the  acid 
has  all  been  neutralized.  The  number  of  cubic  centimeters 
of  alkali  added  to  the  cream  is  then  noted,  and  from  this 
the  percentage  of  acid  is  calculated  according  to  the 
following  formula: 

No.  c.c.  alkali  X  .009 
Per  cent  acid  =  -     No.  c.c.  cream      "  X  100' 

Example :  What  is  the  percentage  of  acidity  when 
30  c.c.  of  alkali  are  required  to  neutralize  50  c.c.  of  cream  ? 

3-^  X  100  =  .54*. 

From  the  formula  it  is  evident  that  any  amount  of 
cream  may  be  used  for  a  test.  But  more  accurate  results 
are  obtained  by  using  50  c.c.  than  less.  Where  this 
amount  of  cream  is  always  used  the  formula  may  be  con- 
siderably simplified. 

Thus,   by  dividing  the  numerator  and  denominator  by  50,  the 

/  No.  c.c.  alkali  X  .009  \ 

expression  I  —  — ^Q —  -    x    100  1  becomes    (No.   c.c. 

alkali  X  .009  X  2)  or  (No.  c.c.  alkali  X  .018).  The  acidity  in 
the  problem  above  would  therefore  equal  30  X  .018  =  .54$. 

HARRINGTON'S  ALKALINE  TABLET  TEST. 

In  the  Farrington  test  the  same  alkali  is  used  as  in 
Manns',  but  in  a  dry  tablet  form  in  which  it  is  more 


80 


CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 


easily  handled  than  in  the  liquid  form.  Each  tablet  con- 
tains enough  alkali  to  neutralize  .034  gram  of  lactic  acid. 
Apparatus  Used  for  the  Test.  This  is  shown  in 
Fig.  23  and  consists  of  a  porcelain  cup,  one  17.6  c.c. 
pipette,  and  a  100  c.c.  rubber-stoppered  graduated  glass 
cylinder. 


PJFETT-E 


Fig.  23.— Farrington  acid  test  apparatus. 


Making  the  Solution.  The  solution  is  made  in -the 
graduated  cylinder  by  dissolving  5  tablets  in  enough 
water  to  make  97  c.c.  solution.  When  the  tablets  are  dis- 
solved, which  takes  from  six  to  twelve  hours,  the  solution 
should  be  well  shaken  and  is  then  ready  for  use.  The 
solution  of  the  tablets  may  be  hastened  by  placing  the 
graduate  in  a  reclining  position  as  shown  in  the  cut. 

Making  the  Test.  With  the  pipette  add  17.6  c.c.  of 
cream  to  the  cup,  then  with  the  same  pipette  add  an  equal 
amount  of  water.  Now  slowly  add  of  the  tablet  solution, 


CREAM  RIPENING  81 

rotating  the  cup  after  each  addition.  As  soon  as  a  per- 
manent pink  color  appears,  the  graduate  is  read  and  the 
number  of  c.c.  solution  used  will  indicate  the  number 
of  hundredths  of  one  per  cent  of  acid  in  the  cream.  Thus, 
if  it  required  50  c.c.  of  the  tablet  solution  to  neutralize  the 
cream  then  the  amount  of  acid  would  be  .50%.  From 
this  it  will  be  seen  that  with  the  Farrington  test  no  calcu- 
lation of  any  kind  is  necessary. 

TESTING  THE;  ACIDITY  OF  MILK. 

The  acidity  of  milk  may  be  determined  in  the  same  way 
as  that  of  cream,  except  that  the  milk  need  not  be  diluted 
with  water  before  adding  the  alkali. 

A  Rapid  Acid  Test  for  Milk.  Where  milk  is  pasteur- 
ized it  is  often  desirable  to  determine  approximately  the 
acidity  of  each  lot  as  it  arrives  at  the  creamery. 
It  has  been  found  that  milk  that  contains  more  than  .2% 
acid  cannot  be  satisfactorily  pasteurized.  Farrington  and 
Woll  have  devised  the  following  rapid  method  for  testing 
the  acidity  of  milk  that  is  to  be  pasteurized : 

Prepare  a  tablet  solution  by  adding  two  tablets  for  each 
ounce  of  water.  When  the  tablets  have  dissolved,  take 
the  solution  into  the  intake.  Now,  as  each  lot  is 
dumped  into  the  weigh  can  a  sample  of  milk  is  taken 
with  a  No.  10  brass  cartridge  shell  and  emptied  into  a 
teacup.  With  another,  or  the  same,  No.  10  shell  add  a 
measure  of  tablet  solution  to  the  cup.  Mix  the  alkali  and 
milk  by  giving  the  contents  of  the  cup  a  rotary  motion.  If 
the  milk  remains  white  it  contains  more  than  .2%  acid; 
if  it  is  colored,  there  is  less  than  .2%  acid  present. 

Where  the  tablet  solution  is  prepared  as  above  care 
must  be  taken  to  secure  equal  quantities  of  milk  and 

solution  for  the  test. 
6 


82  CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 

PRECAUTIONS  IN   MAKING  ACID  TESTS. 

1.  Always  thoroughly  mix  the  cream  or  milk  before 
taking  a  sample  for  a  test. 

2.  Prepare  the  tablet  solution  and  dilute  the  cream 
with  water  as  nearly  neutral  as  possible.     Soft  water  is 
better  than  hard. 

3.  Keep  the  tablets  dry  and  well  bottled. 

4.  Keep  the   Manns  neutralizer  and  the   Farrington 
tablet  solution  carefully  stoppered  with  a  rubber  stopper, 
as  exposure  to  the  air  will  weaken  the  solutions  by  absorb- 
ing carbonic  acid. 

5.  With  the  Farrington  tablets  it  is  best  to  prepare 
a  new  solution  every  day. 

6.  Make  the  tests  where  there  is  plenty  of  light  so 
that  the  first  appearance  of  a  permanent  pink  color  can 
readily  be  noticed. 

RELATION  OF  RICHNESS  AND  ACIDITY   IN   CREAM. 

In  practice  we  find  that  the  ripening  is  slower  in  rich 
than  in  poor  cream.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  acid 
develops  in  the  milk  serum,  which  really  should  be  used 
as  the  basis  in  measuring  the  degree  of  acidity,  if  this 
were  possible. 

In  a  cream  testing  25%  we  find  that  more  acid  must 
be  developed  to  get  the  desired  effects  in  cream  ripening 
than  is  necessary  in  a  35%  cream.  This  is  so  because  in 
the  25  %  cream  we  have  the  acid  distributed  through  75% 
milk  serum,  while  in  the  35%  cream  it  is  distributed 
through  only  65%  milk  serum. 

If  both  the  above  creams  show  an  acidity  of  .5%,  this 
means  that  in  the  poor  cream  the  .5  pound  of  acid  is 
distributed  through  75  pounds  of  serum,  while  in  the  rich 


CREAM  RIPENING 


83 


cream  it  is  distributed  through  only  65  pounds  of  serum, 
hence  the  latter  must  have  the  greater  intensity  of  acidity. 
This  may  be  graphically  shown  as  follows : 


Poor  cream. 


Rich  cream. 


25  %  fat. 


75$  serum. 
.5$  acid. 


35$  fat. 


65$  serum. 
.5$  acid. 


In  the  illustrations  above  it  is  seen  that  the  acid  in  the 
rich  cream  is  distributed  through  less  space  than  in  the 
poor,  hence  the  degree  of  acidity  must  be  higher  in  th° 
rich  cream. 

We  find  in  practice  where  the  same  results  are  to  be 
expected  from  the  ripening  process,  a  25%  cream  must 
show  about  .6%  acidity,  while  a  35%  cream,  about  .5%. 

In  bulletin  No.  24  of  the  Washington  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, Prof.  Spillman  gives  a  table  showing  the  required 
acidity  for  cream  of  different  richness. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

STARTERS. 

The  value  of  carefully  selected  cultures  of  lactic  acid 
producing  bacteria  in  cream  ripening  was  first  demon- 
strated by  Dr.  Storch,  of  Copenhagen,  a  little  more  than 
a  decade  and  a  half  ago.  Since  then  the  use  of  these 
cultures  has  spread  so  rapidly  that  few  successful  cream- 
eries can  be  found  at  the  present  time  in  which  they  are 
not  used. 

Definition.  Starter  is  the  general  term  applied  to 
cultures  of  lactic  acid  organisms,  whether  they  have  been 
selected  artificially  in  a  laboratory,  or  at  creameries  by 
picking  out  lots  of  milk  that  seem  to  contain  these  organ- 
isms to  the  exclusion  of  others.  A  good  starter  may  be 
defined  as  a  clean  flavored  batch  of  sour  milk  or  sour 
skim-milk. 

The  word  starter  derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that 
a  starter  is  used  to  "start"  or  assist  the  development  of 
the  lactic  fermentation  in  cream  ripening. 

Object  of  Starters.  Cream  ordinarily  contains  many 
kinds  of  bacteria — good,  bad,  and  indifferent — and  to 
insure  the  predominance  of  the  lactic  acid  type  in  the 
ripening  process  it  is  necessary  to  reinforce  the  bacteria 
of  this  type  already  existing  in  the  cream  by  adding  large 
quantities  of  them  in  a  pure  form,  that  is,  unmixed  with 
undesirable  species. 

The  bacterial  or  plant  life  of  cream  may  be  aptly  com- 
pared with  the  plant  life  of  a  garden.  In  both  we  find 
plants  of  a  desirable  and  undesirable  character.  The 

84 


STARTERS  85 

weeds  of  the  garden  correspond  to  the  bad  fermentations 
of  cream.  If  the  weeds  get  the  start  of  the  cultivated 
vegetables,  the  growth  of  the  latter  will  be  checked  or 
suppressed.  So  with  the  bacterial  fermentations  of 
cream.  When  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  predominate,  other 
fermentations  will  be  checked  or  crowded  out.  The 
use  of  a  liberal  amount  of  starter  nearly  always  insures 
a  majority  of  good  bacteria  and  the  larger  this  majority 
the  better  the  product. 

Classification  of  Starters.     The  following  is  a  classi- 
fication of  the  various  starters  in  use  at  the  present  time : 

f  Sour  skim-milk ; 

I   Sour  milk 

f  Natural. 


Sour  cream. 
i  Buttermilk.. 


Starters.  - 


Undesirable. 


f  n  noiiffiaQpnitiir^J  l-  Boston  Butter  Culture 

I     \J.   -LSUUgldib  O  UlbUI  Ca  ^     o      r  nnt\n     A  n\r\   Oiiltnr*» 
f  Rr»cfrnn     Mncc  \         I    j     L*<*^t'1^   AO1U  UlUbUTC. 

on,  Mass,)...(  &  Duplex  Culture. 

Commercial  |  u  f,  rr^^  T«  (  1.  Boston  Butter  Culture 

(American)...  -{   fe&3Sfti  4«»n  1  Lactic  Acid  Culture. 
D  n,  Miss.)  ^  J  Duplex  culture. 

Elov  Erricson  (Mankato,  Minn.). 
Hansen's  Lactic  Ferment  (Little  Falls,  N.  Y.) 
and  a  few  others. 


NATURAL  STARTERS. 

Sour  Milk  and  Skim=milk.  Natural  starters  are  those 
obtained  by  allowing  milk,  skim-milk,  or  possibly  cream, 
to  sour  in  the  ordinary  way. 

The  earlier  methods  of  using  natural  starters  consisted 
in  selecting  milk  or  skim-milk  from  the  patrons  who 
furnished  the  best  milk  at  the  creamery,  and  allowing  this 
to  sour  by  holding  it  over  till  'the  following  day.  While 
good  milk  could  be  selected  in  this  way,  the  method  of 
souring  it  was  very  unsatisfactory.  On  warm  days  the 
milk  might  oversour,  while  on  cooler  days  it  would  be 


86  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

found  comparatively  sweet  unless  a  good  deal  of  atten- 
tion was  given  to  keeping  the  temperature  where  it  would 
sour  in  the  proper  length  of  time.  This  method  of 
starter  making  is  rapidly  falling  into  disuse. 

The  most  satisfactory  natural  starters  are  selected  and 
prepared  in  the  following  manner :  Secure,  say,  one  quart 
of  milk  from  each  of  half  a  dozen  healthy  cows  not  far 
advanced  in  lactation,  and  fed  on  good  feed.  Before 
drawing  the  milk,  brush  the  flanks  and  udders  of  the 
cows  and  then  moisten  them  with  water  or,  preferably, 
coat  thinly  with  vasaline  to  prevent  dislodgement  of  dust. 
Then,  after  rejecting  the  first  few  streams,  draw  the  milk 
into  sterilized  quart  jars  provided  with  narrow  necks. 
Now  allow  the  milk  to  sour,  uncovered,  in  a  clean,  pure 
atmosphere  at  a  temperature  between  65°  and  90°  F. 
When  loppered  pour  off  the  top  and  introduce  the  sample 
with  the  best  flavor  into  fifty  pounds  of  sterilized  skim- 
milk  and  ripen  at  a  temperature;  at  which  it  will  sour  in 
twenty- four  hours  (about  65°  F.). 

A  starter  thus  selected  can  be  propagated  for  a  month 
or  more  by  daily  inoculating  newly  sterilized  or  pasteur- 
ized milk  with  a  small  amount  of  the  old  or  mother  starter. 
Usually  three  or  four  pounds  of  the  mother  starter  added 
to  one  hundred  pounds  of  pasteurized  skim-milk  will  sour 
it  in  twenty- four  hours  at  a  temperature  of  65°  F.  Under 
certain  conditions  of  weather  this  amount  may  possibly 
have  to  be  modified  a  little,  for  it  is  well  known  that  on 
hot  sultry  days  milk  will  sour  more  quickly  at  a  given 
temperature  than  on  cooler  days.  The*  best  rule  to  follow 
is  to  use  enough  of  the  rhother  starter  to  sour  the  milk 
in  twenty- four  hours  at  a  temperature  of  65°  F. 

Buttermilk  and  Sour  Cream.  If  the  cream  has  a 
;*3od  flavor,  a  portion  of  this,  or  the  buttermilk  from  it, 


STARTERS  87 

may  be  used  as  a  starter.  But  in  the  case  of  unpasteurized 
cream,  even  though  the  flavor  is  good,  there  are  always 
present  some  undesirable  germs  which  will  multiply  in 
each  successive  batch  of  cream  or  buttermilk  used  as  a 
starter,  so  that  after  a  week's  use  the  flavor  may  actually 
be  bad.  Where  cream  is  slightly  off  flavored  and  a  por- 
tion of  this,  or  the  buttermilk  from  it,  is  used  as  a  starter, 
it  will  readily  be  seen  that  the  taint  will  not  only  be 
transmitted  but  will  multiply  in  the  cream  from  day  to 
day.  The  use  of  either  cream  or  buttermilk  as  a  starter 
is  therefore  not  to  be  recommended. 


COMMERCIAL   STARTERS. 

Commercial  starters  may  consist  of  -a  single  species 
of  lactic  acid  organisms,  but  usually  they  are  made  up 
of  a  mixture  of  several  species.  These  starters  are  pre- 
pared in  laboratories  where  the  utmost  precautions  are 
taken  to  keep  them  free  from  undesirable  germs.  The 
methods  by  which  the  good  bacteria  are  separated  from 
the  bad  are  quite  complicated, and  of  too  little  practical 
value  to  permit  a  discussion  of  them  here.  Suffice  it  to 
say  that  such  separation  is  possible  only  with  the  skilled 
bacteriologist. 

Keith  and  Douglas  each  manufacture  three  different 
cultures  which  are  put  upon  the  market  in  liquid  form,  the 
liquid  usually  being  bouillon,  or  beef  extract,  treated 
with  milk  sugar.  The  development  of  the  germs  in  this 
medium  is  very  rapid  and  the  cultures  should  therefore 
not  be  used  later  than  ten  days  after  they  are  sent  out 
from  the  manufacturer  unless  they  are  kept  at  low  tem- 
peratures. The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  rapid  growth 
of  the  bacteria  will  quickly  result  in  vast  numbers  of  them, 


88  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

which,  together  with  their  by-products,  is  fatal  to  their 
development. 

The  chief  difference  in  the  three  cultures  prepared  by 
these  men  lies  in  the  intensity  of  acid  produced.  The 
"lactic"  is  the  most  vigorous,  and  the  "Boston"  the  least 
vigorous  acid  producing  culture,  while  the  "duplex" 
seems  to  take  an  intermediate  position.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  between  these  cultures. 

Erricson's  culture  has  only  recently  been  placed  upon 
the  market  but  is  already  popular.  It  is  sent  out  in  the 
form  of  a  liquid  (also  as  a  powder)  which  appears  to  con- 
sist of  sterilized  milk  to  which  some  sugar  has  been  added. 

Hansen's  lactic  ferment  is  put  up  in  the  form  of  a 
powder  which  consists  chiefly  of  sterilized  milk  with 
possibly  slight  additions  of  casein  and  starch.  In  this 
dry  powdery  medium  the  germs  remain  in  a  dormant 
condition.  When  held  a  long  time  in  this  condition  their 
vitality  seems  to  become  impaired. 

Preparation.  Most  of  the  commercial  cultures  are 
sent  out  in  one  ounce  bottles  which  are  hermetically 
sealed.  The  method  of  making  starters  from  them  is  the 
same  for  all  whether  they  are  obtained  in  the  liquid  or 
in  the  dry  form. 

In  making  the  first  batch  of  commercial  starter,  the 
entire  contents  of  the  bottle  is  put  into  a  quart  of  skim- 
milk,  sterilized  by  keeping  it  at  a  temperature  of  200°  F. 
for  two  hours,  and  then  cooling  to  80°  which  temperature 
should  be  maintained  until  the  starter  has  thickened.  A 
new  starter  is  now  prepared  by  introducing  the  quart  of 
starter  into  fifty  pounds  of  skim-milk,  pasteurized  by 
keeping  it  at  a  temperature  of  170°  to  185°  for  thirty 
minutes  and  then  cooling  to  65°  F.  All  subsequent  starters 
are  prepared  in  the  same  way  except  that  the  amount  of 


STARTERS  89 

mother  starter  for  inoculation  must  be  reduced  a  little 
for  a  few  days  because  the  germs  become  more  vigorous 
after  they  have  propagated  several  days. 

In  preparing  the  first  starter  from  a  bottle  of  culture 
it  is  necessary  to  have  the  skim-milk  sterile.  For  if  any 
spores  should  remain,  the  slow  souring  would  give  them 
a  chance  to  develop  which  might  spoil  the  starter.  More- 
over, the  cooked  flavor  imparted  by  the  prolonged  heating 
at  high  temperatures  does  not  matter  in  the  first  starter 
as  this  should  never  be  used  to  ripen  cream.  The  first 
and  second  starters  prepared  from  a  new  culture  seldom 
have  the  good  flavor  produced  in  subsequent  starters. 
The  cause  of  this  in  all  probability  is  the  inactive  condi- 
tion of  the  germs  and  the  peculiar  flavor  of  the  medium 
in  which  they  are  sent  out. 

In  the  starters  prepared  later  the  destruction  of  the 
spores  is  not  so  essential  as  the  lactic  acid  germs  are  then 
in  a  vigorously  growing  condition  which  renders  the 
spores  practically  harmless.  At  any  rate  the  harm  done  by 
them  would  be  less  than  that  caused  by  the  sterilizing 
process.  When  milk  is  pasteurized  at  170°  to  185°  F. 
for  thirty  minutes  the  vegetative  germs  are  destroyed  and 
but  little  cooked  flavor  is  noticeable. 

NATURAL  VERSUS   COMMERCIAL   STARTERS. 

Experimental  tests  have  shown  that  equally  good  results 
can  be  secured  with  commerical  and  natural  starters.  It 
is  believed,  however,  that  the  average  butter  maker  can 
get  the  best  results  with  commercial  starters.  Too  few 
are  good  judges  of  milk  and  for  this  reason  are  not 
always  capable  of  selecting  the  best  for  natural  starters. 
Standard  commercial  cultures  can  be  relied  upon  as  giv- 
ing uniformly  good  results. 


90  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

From  what  has  been  said  of  the  methods  of  preparing 
starters  it  must  have  been  noticed  that  they  are  essentially 
the  same  for  both  the  natural  and  the  commercial,  the 
chief  difference  being  in  the  original  ferment,  which  in 
the  case  of  the  natural  starter  consists  of  a  quart  of 
selected  milk  allowed  to  sour  naturally,  while  in  the  com- 
mercial it  consists  of  a  bottle  of  culture  prepared  in  a 
laboratory. 

USING  A   STARTER  EVERY  OTHER  DAY. 

During  the  winter  when  milk  is  received  every  other 
day  at  creameries  the  ordinary  method  of  preparing 
starters  daily  is,  of  course,  out  of  question.  There  are 
two  ways,  however,  in  which  starters  may  be  carried 
along  during  this  time.  One  way  is  to  keep  the  starter 
an  extra  twenty- four  hours  by  holding  it  at  a  temperature 
below  50°  after  it  has  soured.  The  other  and  more 
satisfactory  way  is  to  prepare  a  small  starter  on  the  day 
the  milk  is  separated ;  and,  in  addition,  to  pasteurize,  but 
not  inoculate,  the  amount  of  skim-milk  needed  for  the 
regular  starter.  This  milk  is  repasteurized  the  following 
day  and  then  inoculated  from  the  small  starter  prepared 
the  day  previous. 

The  object  in  repasteurizing  the  milk  is  to  destroy  the 
spores  that  have  developed  into  the  vegetative  state. 

HOW  TO  SELECT  MIUC  FOR  STARTERS. 

It  is  poor  practice  to  select  starter  milk  promiscuously. 
The  sweetest  and  best  flavored  milk  should  be  obtained 
for  the  preparation  of  starters.  Where  possible  the  best 
plan  is  to  select  the  morning's  milk  of  one  of  the  earliest 
patrons  at  the  creamery  and  separate  this  first.  In  case 


STARTERS  91 

the  best  milk  is  received  toward  the  middle  or  close  of  the 
run,  it  should  be  carried  into  the  creamery  and  separated 
by  itself  so  as  to  secure  the  skim-milk  without  contamina- 
tion from  other  milk  of  inferior  flavor. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  any  milk  may  be  made  into 
a  first-class  starter  by  thorough  pasteurization  and  inocu- 
lation with  good  cultures  of  bacteria.  The  best  starters 
are  possible  only  with  the  best  milk. 

WHOLE  MI.UC  STARTERS. 

Where  whole  milk  is  used  for  making  starters  the  cream 
should  always  be  skimmed  off  before  using  the  starter. 
Indeed  it  is  good  practice  to  skim  off  the  top  of  any 
starter  before  using  as  the  surface  is  liable  to  become 
contaminated  from  exposure  to  the  air. 

ACIDITY    OF    STARTERS. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  a  starter  is  at  its  best 
immediately  after  it  has  thickened  when  it  usually  shows 
about  .7%  acid.  It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that 
all  starters  are  at  their  best  when  they  show  this  amount 
of  acid,  because  different  starters  thicken  with  different 
degrees  of  acidity.  Nor  must  it  be  supposed  that  a  starter 
that  tends  to  sour  very  quickly  is  better  than  one  that 
sours  slowly.  Marshall,  of  the  Michigan  Agricultural 
College,  has  recently  found  that  when  certain  alkali  pro- 
ducing bacteria  are  associated  with  the  lactic  acid  organ- 
isms the  milk  sours  more  quickly  than  when  the  alkali 
bacteria  are  not  present.  These  alkali  producing  bacteria, 
while  they  hasten  the  souring,  produce  an  undesirable 
flavor.  This  probably  explains  why  starters  that  have  a 
tendency  to  sour  very  rapidly  are  often  inferior  to  those 


92  CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 

that  sour  less  rapidly.  Usually,  too,  starters  after  they 
have  been  propagated  for  some  time,  become  intensely 
acid  producing,  which  is  probably  due  to  contamination 
with  the  peculiar  alkali  producing  bacteria. 

RENEWAL,  OF   STARTERS.      . 

Under  average  creamery  conditions  it  is  policy  to  renew 
the  starter  at  least  once  a  month  by  purchasing  a  new 
bottle  of  culture.  It  will  be  found  that  after  the  starter 
has  been  propagated  for  two  or  three  weeks  bad  germs 
will  begin  to  manifest  themselves  as  a  result  of  imperfect 
pasteurization,  contamination  from  the  air,  or  from  over- 
ripening,  so  that  its  original  good  flavor  may  be  seriously 
impaired  at  the  end  of  one  month's  use.  It  is  only  where 
the  utmost  precautions  are  taken  in  pasteurizing  the  milk 
and  ripening  the  starter,  that  it  is  possible  to  propagate 
a  starter  for  many  weeks  and  still  maintain  a  good  flavor. 

VALUE  OF  CARRYING  SEVERAL  STARTERS. 

There  is  always  some  possibility  of  losing  a  starter  by 
overripening  or  by  accidental  contamination  which  would 
deprive  the  butter  maker  of  the  use  of  a  starter  for  several 
days.  To  insure  against  this,  butter  makers  should  practice 
carrying  a  few  extra  ones  in  quart  cans.  This  has  the 
additional  advantage  of  offering  some  choice.  The  best 
is,  of  course,  always  selected  for  regular  use.  The  milk 
for  the  small  starters  should  be  sterilized  rather  than 
pasteurized. 

This  practice  of  carrying  several  starters  is  strongly 
recommended. 


STARTERS  93 


STARTER  CANS. 

The  most  difficult  thing  in  connection  with  starters  is 
to  get  them  just  ripe  when  ready  to  use.  A  starter  has  its 
best  flavor  right  after  it  has  thickened.  When  it  begins 


Fig.  24.  —Starter  can. 


to  show  whey  it  indicates  that  the  ripening  has  gone  too 
far  and  should  not  then  be  used  in  the  cream.  The  strong 
and  curdy  flavors  found  in  butter  are  often  directly  attrib- 
utable to  overripened  starters. 

It  becomes  evident  that  to  secure  the  proper  acidity 
in  the  starter  from  day  to  day  cans  or  vats  must  be  used  in 
whioh  it  is  possible  to  obtain  perfect  control  of  tempera- 
ture. The  improved  modern  starter  can,  shown  in  Fig. 
24,  answers  the  purpose  very  satisfactorily.  This  can  is 


94  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

handy  and  provided  with  a  double  jacket  between  which 
steam,  hot  water,  cold  water,  or  ice  water  may  be  circu- 
lated as  the  case  may  demand.  It  is  also  provided  with  an 
agitator  which  is  operated  by  power. 

POINTERS  ON   STARTERS. 

1.  Starters  give  best  results  when  added  to  cream 
immediately  after  they  have  thickened. 

2.  An  overripe  starter  produces  somewhat  the  same 
effect  in  butter  as  overripened  cream.     Curdy  flavors  are 
usually  the  result  of  such  starters. 

3.  To  prevent  overripening,   starter  cans  or  starter 
vats  must  be  used  in  which  the  temperature  can  be  kept 
under  perfect  control. 

4.  Skim-milk  furnishes  the  best  medium  for  starters, 
since  this  has  undergone  the  cleansing  action  of  the  sepa- 
rator and  is  free  from  fat,  which  hampers  the  growth  of 
lactic  acid  bacteria. 

5.  Agitate  and  uncover  the  milk  while  heating  to  in- 
sure a  uniform  temperature  and  to  permit  undesirable 
odors  to  escape. 

6.  Always  dip.  the  thermpmeter  in  hot  water  before 
inserting  it  in  pasteurized  milk.    The  pasteurizing  process 
becomes  a  delusion  when  dirty  thermometers  are  used  for 
observing  temperatures. 

7.  Always  use   a  sterilized  can   for   making  a  new 
starter. 

8.  Keep  the  starter  can  loosely  covered  after  the  milk 
has  been  heated  to  prevent  germs  from  the  air  gettir.j 
into  it. 

9.  Stir  the  starter  occasionally  the  first  five  hours  after 
inoculation  to  insure  uniform  ripening. 


STARTERS  95 

10.  Never  disturb  the  starter  after  it  has  begun  thick- 
ening until  ready  to  use. 

11.  When  a  new  bottle  of  commercial  culture  is  used, 
the  first  two  starters  from  it  should  not  be  used  in  cream 
as  the  flavor  is  usually  inferior  on  account  of  the  slow 
growth  of  the  bacteria  and  the  undesirable  flavor  imparted 
by  the  medium  in  which  the  cultures  are  sent  out.     A 
commercial  starter  is  usually  at  its  best  after  it  has  been 
propagated  a  week. 

12.  Always  sterilize  the  neck  of  a  new  bottle  of  culture 
before  emptying  the  contents  into  sterilized  skim-milk. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

CHURNING. 

Under  the  physical  properties  of  butter  fat  it  was 
mentioned  that  this  fat  existed  in  milk  in  the  form 
of  extremely  minute  globules,  numbering  about  100,000,- 
ooo  per  drop  of  milk.  In  rich  cream  this  number  is  in- 
creased at  least  a  dozen  times  owing  to  the  concentration 
of  the  fat  globules  during  the  separation  of  the  milk. 

So  long  as  milk  and  cream  remain  undisturbed,  the  fat 
remains  in  this  finely  divided  state  without  any  tendency 
whatever  to  flow  together.  This  tendency  of  the  globules 
to  remain  separate  was  formerly  ascribed  to  the  supposed 
presence  of  a  membrane  around  each  globule.  Later  re- 
searches, however,  have  proven  the  falsity  of  this  theory 
and  we  know  now  that  this  condition  of  the  fat  is  due 
to  the  surface  tension  of  the  globules  and  to  the  dense 
layer  of  casein  that  surrounds  them. 

Any  disturbance  great  enough  to  cause  the  globules  to 
break  through  this  caseous  layer  and  overcome  their  sur- 
face tension  will  cause  them  to  unite  or  coalesce,  a  process 
which  we  call  churning.  In  the  churning  of  cream  this 
process  of  coalescing  continues  until  the  fat  globules 
have  united  into  masses  visible  in  the  churn  as  butter 
granules. 

CONDITIONS  THAT  INFLUENCE  CHURNING. 

There  are  a  number  of  conditions  that  have  an  impor- 
tant bearing  upon  the  process  of  churning.  These  may 
be  enumerated  as  follows: 

96 


CHURNING  97 

1.  Temperature. 

2.  Character  of  butter  fat. 

3.  Acidity  of  cream. 

4.  Richness  of  cream. 

5.  Amount  of  cream  in  churn. 

6.  Speed  of  churn. 

7.  Abnormal  fermentations. 

1.  Temperature.     To  have  the  microscopic  globules 
unite  in  churning  they  must  have  a  certain  degree  of  soft- 
ness or  fluidity  which  is  greater  the  higher  the  tempera- 
ture.    Hence  the  higher  the  temperature,  within  certain 
limits,  the  quicker  the  churning.  To  secure  the  best  results 
the  temperature  must  be  such  as  to  churn  the  cream  in 
from  thirty  to  forty-five  minutes.    This  is  brought  about 
in  different  creams  at  quite  different  temperatures. 

The  temperature  at  which  cream  must  be  churned  is 

•determined  primarily  by  the  character  of  the  butter  fat 

and  partly  also  by  the  acidity  and  richness  of  the  cream. 

Rule  for  Churning  Temperature.  A  good  rule  to  fol- 
low with  regard  to  temperature  is  this :  When  the  cream 
enters  the  churn  with  a  richness  of  30  to  35  per  cent 
and  an  acidity  of  .5  to  .6  per  cent,  the  temperature  should 
be  such  that  the  cream  will  churn  in  from  thirty  to  forty- 
five  minutes.  This  will  insure  an  exhaustive  churning 
and  leave  the  butter  in  a  condition  in  which  it  can  be 
handled  without  injuring  its  texture.  Moreover,  the  but- 
termilk can  then  be  easily  removed  so  that  when  a  plug 
is  taken  with  a  trier  the  day  after  it  is  churned  the  brine 
on  it  will  be  perfectly  clear. 

2.  Character  of   Butter   Fat.     The  fat  globules  in 
cream  from  different  sources  and  at  different  times  have 
the  proper  fluidity  to  unite  at  quite  different  temperatures. 

7 


98  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

This  is  so  because  of  the  differences  in  the  relative  amount 
of  "soft"  and  "hard"  fats  of  which  butter  fat  is  composed. 
When  the  hard  fats  largely  predominate  the  butter  fat 
will  of  course  have  a  high  melting  point.  Such  fat  may  be 
quite  hard  at  a  temperature  of  60°  while  a  butter  fat 
of  a  low  melting  point  would  be  comparatively  soft  at 
this  temperature.  For  a  study  of  the  conditions  that 
influence  the  hardness  of  butter  fat  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  discussion  of  the  "insoluble  fats"  treated  in  the 
chapter  on  milk. 

3.  Acidity  of  Cream.  This  has  a  marked  influence  on 
the  churning  process.    Sour  or  ripened  cream  churns  with 
much  greater   ease  than  sweet  cream  because  the  acid 
renders  it  less  viscous.     The  ease  with  which  the   fat 
globules  travel  in  cream  becomes  greater  the  less  the 
viscosity.     Ripe  cream  will  therefore  always  churn  more 
quickly  than  sweet  cream.     Ripe  cream  also  permits  of  a 
higher  churning  temperature  than  sweet  which  is  of  great 
practical  importance  where  it  is  difficult  to  secure  low 
churning  temperatures. 

4.  Richness  of  Cream.     It  may  naturally  be  inferred 
that  the  closer  the   fat  globules  are  together  the  more 
quickly  they  will  unite  with  the  same  amount  of  concus- 
sion.    In  rich  cream  the  globules  are  very  close  together 
which  renders  it  more  easily  churnable  than  thin  cream. 
The  former  can  therefore  be  churned  in  the  same  length 
of  time  at  a  lower  temperature  than  the  latter. 

The  ideal  richness  lies  between  30%  and  35%.  A 
cream  much  richer  than  this  will  stick  to  the  sides  of  the 
churn  which  reduces  the  amount  of  concussion.  The  addi- 
tion of  water  to  the  churn  will  overcome  this  stickiness 
and  cause  the  butter  to  come  in  a  reasonable  length  of 


CHURNING  99 

time.    It  is  better,  however,  to  avoid  an  excessive  richness 
when  an  exhaustive  churning  is  to  be  expected. 

5.  Amount  of  Cream  in  Churn.     The  best  and  quick- 
est churning  is  secured  when  the  churn  is  one-third  full. 
With  more  or  less  cream  than  this  the  amount  of  concus- 
sion is  reduced  and  the  length  of  time  in  churning  cor- 
respondingly increased. 

6.  Speed  of  Churn.     The  speed  of  the  churn  should 
be  such  as  to  produce  the  greatest  possible  agitation  or 
concussion  of  the  cream.     Too  high  or  too  low  a  speed 
reduces  the  amount  of  concussion.    The  proper  speed  for 
each  particular  churn  must  be  determined  by  experiment. 

7.  Abnormal  Fermentations.  The  slimy  or  ropy  fer- 
mentation sometimes  causes  trouble  in  churning  by  ren- 
dering the  cream  excessively  viscous.    Cream  from  single 
herds  may  become  so  viscous  as  to  render  churning  im- 
possible. At  creameries  where  milk  is  received  from  many 
herds  very  little  trouble  is  experienced  from  these  fer- 
mentations. 

CHURNS. 

A  churn  is  a  machine  in  which  the  cream  is  made 
to  slide  or  drop,  or  is  in  some  way  agitated  to  bring  about 
the  union  of  the  fat  globules,  which  changes  the  liquid  fat 
into  a  solid.  For  many  years  the  factory  churns  had 
assumed  the  form  of  a  box  or  barrel  free  from  any  inside 
fixtures.  Such  churns  were  revolved  by  power  and  did 
very  satisfactory  work.  But  it  was  necessary  to  transfer 
the  butter,  after  it  was  churned,  to  a  worker  upon  which 
it  was  worked. 

This  transfer  from  one  piece  of  apparatus  to  another 
was  obviated  by  the  invention  of  "combined"  churns  and 


100 


CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 


workers  (Figs.  25,  26,  29)  placed  upon  the  market  a  little 
more  than  a  decade  ago.  These  are  provided  with 
rollers  inside,  which  remain  stationary  during  churning, 
but  can  be  made  to  revolve  when  it  is  desired  to  work 
the  butter. 


CHURNING  101 

The  combined  churns  have  to  a  great  extent  replaced 
the  old  box  and  barrel  styles  because  of  the  many  advan- 
tages they  possess  over  the  latter.  The  principal  advan- 
tages may  be  stated  as  follows : 


Fig.  26.  — Disbrow  combined  churn  and  butter  worker. 

1.  They  occupy  less  space. 

2.  Require  less  belting  and  fewer  pulleys. 

3.  The  churn  can  be  kept  closed  while  working  which 
keeps  the  warm  air  and  flies  out  during  the  summer. 

4.  The  butter  can  be  made  with  considerably  less  labor. 
A  few  disadvantages  might  be  mentioned  such  as  the 

greater  original  cost  and  the  greater  difficulty  of  cleaning 
and  salting.  But  with  proper  care  the  butter  may  be 
evenly  salted  and  the  churns  kept  clean. 

CHURNING  OPERATIONS. 

Preparing  the  Churn.  Before  adding  the  cream,  the 
churn  should  be  scalded  with  hot  water  and  then 
thoroughly  rinsed  with  cold  water.  This  will  "freshen" 


102  CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 

the  churn  and  fill  the  pores  of  the  wood  with  water  so 
that  the  cream  and  butter  will  not  stick. 

Straining  Cream.  All  cream  should  be  carefully 
strained  into  the  churn.  This  removes  the  possibility  of 
white  specks  in  butter  which  usually  consist  of  curd  or 
dried  particles  of  cream. 

Adding  the  Color.  The  amount  of  color  to  be  added 
depends  upon  -the  kind  of  cream,  the  season  of  the  year, 
and  the  market  demands. 

Jersey  or  Guernsey  cream  requires  much  less  color 
than  Holstein  because  it  contains  more  natural  color. 

During  the  summer  when  the  cows  are  feeding  on 
pastures  the  amount  of  color  needed  may  be  less  than 
half  that  required  in  the  winter  when  the  cows  are  feed- 
ing on  dry  feed. 

Different  markets  demand  different  shades  of  color. 
The  butter  must  therefore  be  colored  to  suit  the  market 
to  which  it  is  shipped. 

In  the  winter  time  about  one  ounce  of  color  is  required 
per  one  hundred  pounds  of  butter.  During  the  summer 
less  than  one-half  ounce  is  usually  sufficient. 

In  case  the  color  is  not  added  to  the  cream  (through  an 
oversight)  it  may  be  added  to  the  butter  at  the  time  of 
working  by  thoroughly  mixing  it  with  the  salt.  When  the 
colored  salt  has  been  evenly  distributed  through  the  butter 
the  color  will  also  be  uniform  throughout. 

Kinds  of  Color.  There  are  two  classes  of  butter  color 
found  upon  the  market.  One  is  a  vegetable  color  having 
its  origin  in  the  annatta  and  other  plants,  the  other  is  a 
mineral  color,  a  product  of  coal  tar.  Both  are  entirely 
satisfactory  so  far  as  they  impart  to  butter  a  desirable 
color.  But  from  a  sanitary  standpoint  the  vegetable  color 


CHURNING  103 

seems  to  be  preferred  and  this  is  the  color  now  used  in 
creameries. 

Gas  in  Churn.  During  the  first  five  minutes  of  churn- 
ing the  vent  of  the  churn  should  be  opened  occasionally 
to  relieve  the  pressure  developed  inside.  This  pressure 
according  to  Babcock  "is  chiefly  due  to  the  air  within 
becoming  saturated  with  moisture  and  not  to  gas  set  free 
from  the  cream." 

Size  of  Granules.  Butter  should  be  churned  until  the 
granules  are  about  half  the  size  of  a  pea.  When  larger 
than  this  it  is  more  difficult  to  remove  the  buttermilk  and 
distribute  the  salt.  When  smaller,  some  of  the  fine  grains 
are  liable  to  pass  out  with  the  buttermilk,  and  the  per- 
centage of  water  in  the  butter  is  reduced.  When  the 
granules  have  reached  the  right  size,  cold  water  should 
be  added  to  the  churn  to  cause  the  butter  to  float.  Salt 
will  answer  the  same  purpose.  The  churn  is  now  given 
two  or  three  revolutions  and  the  buttermilk  drawn  off. 

Washing  Butter.  One  washing  in  which  as  much 
water  is  used  as  there  was  cream  is  usually  sufficient. 
When  butter  churns  very  soft  two  washings  may  be 
advantageous.  Too  much  washing  is  dangerous,  how- 
ever, as  it  removes  the  delicate  flavor  of  the  butter. 

Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  importance 
of  using  clean,  pure  water  for  washing.  Experiments 
conducted  at  various  experiment  stations  have  shown 
that  impure  water  seriously  affects  the  flavor  of  butter. 
When  the  water  is  not  perfectly  pure  it  should  be  filtered 
or  pasteurized. 

SAI/TING. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  nothing  but  the  best  grades 
of  salt  should  be  used  in  butter.  This  means  salt  readily 


104  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

soluble  in  water  and  free  from  impurities.  If  there  is 
much  foreign  matter  in  salt,  it  will  leave  a  turbid  appear- 
ance and  a  slight  sediment  when  dissolved  in  a  tumbler 
of  clear  water. 

Rate  of  Salt.  The  rate  at  which  butter  "should  be 
salted,  other  conditions  the  same,  is  dependent  upon 
market  demands.  Some  markets  like  Boston  require  much 
salt  in  butter  while  some  buyers  in  the  New  York  market 
require  scarcely  any.  The  butter  maker  must  cater  to  the 
markets  with  regard  to  the  amount  of  salt  to  use  as  he 
does  with  regard  to  color. 

The  rate  of  salt  used  does  not  necessarily  determine 
the  amount  contained  in  butter.  For  instance  it  is  per- 
fectly possible  under  certain  conditions  to  get  a  higher 
percentage  of  salt  in  butter  by  salting  at  the  rate  of  one 
ounce  per  pound  than  is  possible  under  other  conditions 
by  salting  at  the  rate  of  one  and  a  half  ounces.  This 
means  that  under  some  conditions  of  salting  more  salt  is 
lost  than  under  others. 

The  amount  of  salt  retained  in  butter  is  dependent  upon : 

1.  Amount  of  drainage  before  salting. 

2.  Fineness  of  butter  granules. 

3.  Amount  of  butter  in  churn. 

1.  When  the  butter  is  salted  before  the  wash  water 
has  had  time  to  drain  away,  any  extra  amount  of  water 
remaining  will  wash  out  an  extra  amount  of  salt.     It  is 
good  practice,  however,  to  use  a  little  extra  salt   and 
drain  less  before  adding  it  as  the  salt  will  dissolve  better 
under  these  conditions. 

2.  Small  butter  granules  require  more  salt  than  large 
ones.    The  reason  for  this  may  be  stated  as  follows :  The 
surface  of  every  butter  granule  is  covered  with  a  thin 


CHURNING  105 

film  of  water,  and  since  the  total  surface  of  a  pound  of 
small  granules  is  greater  than  that  of  a  pound  of  larger 
ones,  the  amount  of  water  retained  on  them  is  greater. 
Small  granules  have  therefore  the  same  effect  as  insuffi- 
cient drainage,  namely,  washing  out  more  salt. 

3.  Relatively  less  salt  will  stick  to  the  churn  in  large 
churnings  than  in  small,  consequently  less  will  be  lost. 

Standard  Rate.  The  average  amount  of  salt  used  in 
butter  made  in  the  combined  churns  comes  close  to  one 
and  a  half  ounces  per  pound  of  butter.  But  the  rate  de- 
manded by  different  commission  men  may  vary  from  no 
salt  to  two  and  a  half  ounces  per  pound  of  butter. 

With  the  combined  churns  great  care  must  be  exercised 
to  get  the  salt  evenly  distributed  from  one  end  of  the 
churn  to  the  other  as  it  can  not  redistribute  itself  in  the 
working. 

Brine  Salting.  This  consists  in  dissolving  the  salt  in 
water  and  adding  it  to  the  butter  in  the  form  of  a  brine. 
This  will  usually  insure  an  even  distribution  with  less 
working  since  the  salt  is  already  dissolved.  Where  butter 
containing  a  high  percentage  of  salt  is  demanded  the 
method  of  brine  salting  is  not  practical,  because  it  limits 
the  amount  that  can  be  incorporated  in  butter. 

Where  there  is  difficulty  in  securing  an  even  distribu- 
tion of  the  salt  without  excessive  working,  an  oversatu- 
rated  brine  may  be  used  to  advantage.  Salt  added  to 
butter  in  this  form  very  quickly  dissolves  and  a  butter 
with  any  degree  of  salt  is  possible. 

But  it  is  believed  that  where  butter  is  drained  little  and 
a  somewhat  higher  rate  of  salt  is  used,  dry  salting  will 
never  require  overworking  and  will  insure  greater  uni- 
formity than  is  possible  with  brine  salting. 

Object  of  Salting.     Salt   adds   flavor   to   butter   and 


106  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

materially  increases  its  keeping  quality.  Very  high  salt- 
ing, however,  has  a  tendency  to  detract  from  the  fine 
delicate  aroma  of  butter  while  at  the  same  time  it  tends 
to  cover  up  slight  defects  in  the  flavor.  As  a  rule  a  butter 
maker  will  find  it  to  his  advantage  to  be  able  to  salt  his 
butter  rather  high. 

Salt  an  Absorbent.  Salt  very  readily  absorbs  odors 
and  must  therefore  be  kept  in  clean,  dry  places  where  the 
air  is  pure.  Too  frequently  it  is  stored  in  musty,  damp 
store  rooms  where  it  will  not  only  lump,  but  become 
impregnated  with  bad  odors  which  seriously  impair  the 
quality  of  the  butter. 

WORKING  BUTTER. 

The  chief  object  in  working  butter  is  to  evenly  incor- 
porate the  salt.  Working  also  assists  in  expelling 
moisture. 

After  the  wash  water  has  sufficiently  drained  away,  the 
salt  is  carefully  distributed  over  the  butter  and  the  churn 
revolved  a  few  times  with  the  rollers  stationary.  This 
will  aid  in  mixing  the  salt  and  butter.  The  rollers  are 
then  set  in  gear  and  the  butter  worked  until  the  salt  has 
been  evenly  distributed.  To  work  butter  twice  reduces 
the  water  content. 

How  Much  to  Work.  Butter  is  worked  enough  when 
the  salt  has  been  evenly  distributed.  Just  when  this  point 
has  been  reached  can  not  always  be  told  from  the  appear- 
ance of  the  butter  immediately  after  working.  But  after 
four  or  six  hours  standing  the  appearance  of  white 
streaks  or  mottles  indicates  that  the  butter  has  not  been 
sufficiently  worked.  The  rule  to  follow  is  to  work  the 
butter  just  enough  to  prevent  the  appearance  of  mottles 


CHURNING  107 

after  standing  about  six  hours.  Just  how  much  working 
this  requires  every  butter  maker  must  determine  for  him- 
self, by  experiment,  for  the  reason  that  there  are  a  number 
of  conditions  that  influence  the  length  of  time  that  butter 
needs  to  be  worked  in  a  combined  churn.  These  condi- 
tions are : 

1.  Amount  of  butter  in  the  churn. 

2.  Temperature  of  the  butter. 

3.  Time  between  workings. 

4.  Size  of  granules. 

5.  Solubility  of  salt. 

1.  When  there  is  a  moderately  large  amount  of  butter 
in  the  churn  the  working  can  be  accomplished  with  fewer 
revolutions  than  with  a  small  amount.    Satisfactory  work- 
ing can  not  be  secured,  however,  when  the  capacity  of  the 
churn  is  overtaxed. 

2.  Hard,  cold  butter  is  difficult  to  work  because  the 
particles  will  not  knead  together  properly. 

3.  A  moderately  long  time  between  workings  allows 
the  salt  to  dissolve  and  diffuse  through  the  butter  and 
hence  reduces  the  amount  of  working. 

4.  Coarse  or  overchurned  butter  needs  a  great  deal 
of  working  because  of  the  greater  difficulty  of  distribu- 
ting the  salt. 

5.  A  salt  that  does  not  readily  dissolve  requires  exces- 
sive working  and  is  therefore  productive  of  overworked 
butter.     With  such  salt  the  brine  method  of  salting  is 
undoubtedly  preferable. 


108  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

DIFFICULT    CHURNING. 

The  causes  of  trouble  in  churning  may  be  enumerated 
as  follows:  (i)  thin  cream,  (2)  low  temperature,  (3) 
sweet  cream,  (4)  high  viscosity  of  cream-,  (5)  churn  too 
full,  (6)  too  high  or  too  low  speed  of  churn,  (7)  colos- 
trum milk,  (8)  advanced  period  of  lactation,  and  (9)  ab- 
normally rich  cream. 

Foaming.  This  is  usually  due  to  churning  a  thin 
cream  at  too  low  a  temperature,  or  to  a  high  viscosity  of 
the  cream.  When  caused  by  these  conditions  foaming 
can  usually  be  overcome  by  adding  warm  water  to  the 
churn.  Foaming  may  also  be  caused  by  having  the  churn 
too  full,  in  which  case  the  cream  should  be  divided  and 
two  churnings  made  instead  of  one. 

CLEANING  CHURNS. 

After  the  butter  has  been  removed,  the  churn  should  be 
washed,  first  with  moderately  hot  water,  next  with  boiling 
hot  water  containing  a  little  alkali,  and  finally  with  hot 
water.  If  the  final  rinsing  is  done  with  cold  water  the 
churn  dries  too  slowly,  which  is  apt  to  give  it  a  musty 
smell. 

This  daily  washing  should  be  supplemented  once  a  week 
with  a  washing  with  lime  water,  which  is  prepared  as 
follows :  Gradually  slake  half  a  bushel  of  freshly  burned 
lime  by  adding  water  to  it  at  short  intervals  until  about 
150  pounds  of  water  has  been  added.  Stir  the  mixture 
once  every  half  hour  for  several  hours,  after  which  allow 
it  to  remain  undisturbed  for  about  ten  hours.  This 
permits  the  undissolved  material  to  settle.  The  clear 
liquid  is  now  poured  off  and  added  to  the  churn,  which  is 


CHURNING  109 

slowly  revolved  for  at  least  half  an  hour  so  that  the  lime 
water  may  thoroughly  penetrate  the  pores  of  the  wood. 

Nothing  is  equal  to  the  cleansing  action  of  well  pre- 
pared lime  water  and  its  frequent  use  will  prevent  the 
peculiar  churn  odor  that  is  bound  to  develop  in  churns 
not  so  treated. 

The  outside  of  the  churn  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned 
with  moderately  hot  water  containing  a  small  amount  of 
alkali. 

Churning  Cream  Immediately  After  Adding  the 
Starter.  Where  much  hand  separator  cream  is  handled, 
it  is  usually  received  with  varying  amounts  of  acid,  rang- 
ing in  some  cases  from  0.15%  to  0.8%.  When  the 
average  acidity  of  the  cream  is  such  that  when  treated 
with  a  large  amount  of  starter  the  mixture  will  show 
0.5%  acid  or  more,  the  cream  should  be  churned  as  soon 
as  the  proper  churning  temperature  can  be  secured.  If, 
for  example,  the  vat  of  cream  shows  0.4%  acid  and  the 
starter  0.7%,  then  one  part  of  starter  to  two  parts  of 
cream  would  give  an  average  acidity  of  0.5%,  the  right 
amount  for  churning  cream  of  moderate  richness. 

Pumping  Cream  into  the  Churn.  Cream  may  be 
forced  into  the  churn  either  by  means  of  air  pumps, 
sanitary  milk  and  cream  pumps,  or  with  pumps  working 
on  the  principle  of  an  ordinary  well  pump. 

The  air  pumps  require  air-tight  cream  ripeners  for 
their  successful  operation.  The  air  is  pumped  into  the 
ripener  to  create  sufficient  pressure  to  force  the  cream 
into  the  churn.  Forcing  air  into  the  ripener  has  the 
advantage  of  permitting  the  cream  to  be  conducted  to 
the  churn  through  an  open  spout. 

Pumps  worked  with  a  handle  have  the  advantage  of 


110 


CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 


enabling  the  buttermaker  to  put  his  cream  into  the  churn 
in  the  morning  before  there  is  sufficient  steam  pressure  to 
work  pumps  with  the  engine. 

Fig.  27  shows  a  very  satisfactory  cream  pump  which 


II 


Fig.  27.— Cream  pump. 

can  be  made  by  any  tinner.  It  simply  consists  of  a  heavy 
tin  cylinder  four  inches  in  diameter  which  is  provided  with 
two  brass  valves  having  two  inch  openings.  This  pump  is 
attached  to  the  cream  ripener  and  the  cream  pumped  by 
hand  irito  the  churn  through  an  open  spout.  Both  valves 
can  be  removed  so  that  there  is  not  the  slightest  difficulty 
in  cleaning  the  pump.  Such  a  pump  will  readily  pump  25 
gallons  of  cream  per  minute. 


CHAPTER  X. 

PACKING  AND   MARKETING  BUTTER. 

Butter  is  usually  in  the  best  condition  for  packing 
immediately  after  it  has  been  worked.  It  can  then  be 
packed  solidly  into  the  packages  without  the  vigorous 
ramming  necessary  when  the  butter  becomes  too  cold. 
When  allowed  to  stand  in  the  churn  some  time  after  work- 
ing during  the  warm  summer  days,  the  butter  will  usually 
get  too  soft  for  satisfactory  packing. 

There  is  a  great  variety  of  packages  in  which  butter 
may  be  packed  for  the  markets.  These  may  be  con- 
veniently divided  into  two  groups:  (i)  those  used  for 
home  trade,  and  (2)  those  designed  for  export  trade. 

Home  Trade  Packages.  The  bulk  of  the  butter  for 
home  trade  is  packed  in  ash  and  spruce  tubs,  the  former 
holding  20,  30,  and  60  pounds,  while  the  latter  are  made 
in  10,  20,  30,  and  50  pound  sizes. 

Before  adding  the  butter,  the  tubs  must  be  thoroughly 
scrubbed  inside  and  outside,  the  hoops  carefully  set,  and 
then  soaked  in  hot  water  for  about  half  an  hour.  After 
this  they  are  steamed  for  three  minutes  and  then  allowed 
to  soak  in  cold  water  not  less  than  four  hours.  The  sides 
and  bottom  of  the  tubs  are  next  lined  with  parchment 
paper  which  has  been  soaked  in  strong  brine  for  twenty- 
four  hours.  See  "paraffining  tubs/'  page  114. 

The  wet  liners  are  easily  placed  in  the  tubs  by  allowing 
them  to  project  an  inch  and  turning  this  over  the  edge. 

The  tubs  are  now  weighed  and  the  butter  packed  into 

111 


112  CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 

them  directly  from  the  churn,  adding  about  five  pounds 
at  a  time  and  firmly  packing  it  with  a  wooden  packer  made 
for  this  purpose.  The  butter  should  be  packed  solid  so 
that  when  stripped  of  its  package  on  the  retailer's  counter 
no  open  spaces  will  appear  in  it. 

When  ash  tubs  are  •  used  they  are  packed  brim  full 
and  trimmed  off  level  with  the  tub  by  running  a  string 
across  the  top.  The  tubs  are  then  weighed  and  the  weights 
marked  on  the  outside,  allowing  not  less  than  half 
a  pound  for  shrinkage  for  a  sixty  pound  tub.  A  cheese 
cloth  circle  is  next  placed  over  the  top  and  an  oversatu- 
rated  brine  is  pasted  upon  this.  After  careful  cleaning 
place  the  covers  on  the  tubs  and  fasten  them  with  not 
less  than  three  butter  tub  fasteners. 

With  spruce  tubs  the  method  of  packing  is  the  same 
with  the  exception  that  most  markets  require  an  even 
number  of  pounds  in  a  tub,  as  30  or  50  pounds.  The  tubs 
are,  therefore,  trimmed  down  till  the  required  weight,  plus 
half  a  pound  for  shrinkage,  is  reached.  Some  markets 
do  not  require  the  spruce  tubs  to  be  lined  but  it  is  always 
better  to  do  so. 

Prints.  Considerable  quantities  of  butter  made  in 
creameries  are  put  up  in  one  pound  oblong  blocks  called 
prints.  Where  many  of  these  prints  are  made  a  printer 
like  that  shown  in  Fig.  28  is  most  serviceable.  This 
makes  twenty-five  prints  at  a  time. 

The  prints  are  carefully  wrapped  in  parchment  paper 
which  has  been  soaked  in  strong  brine  for  twenty-four 
hours,  and  then  packed  in  cheap  wood  boxes  which 
usually  hold  about  fifty  of  them.  These  boxes  should  be 
held  not  less  than  one  day  in  a  refrigerator  before  they 
are  shipped.  Print  butter  is  growing  in  popularity. 

There  are  various  other  packages  in  which  butter  is 


PACKING  AND  MARKETING  BUTTER  113 

packed,  such  as  five  pound  crocks,  gem  fibre  paper  boxes 
lined  with  parchment  and  holding  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  10 
pounds,  and  the  wooden  bail  boxes  holding  from  5  to  10 
pounds.  Most  of  these  packages  are  used  for  local  trade. 


Fig.  28.— Butter  printer. 

Foreign  Trade  Packages.  For  export  trade  butter  is 
preferably  packed  in  cubical  spruce  boxes  lined  with 
paraffin  and  holding  56  pounds.  These  boxes  are  pre- 
pared by  rinsing  them  with  cold  brine  and  then  lining 
with  parchment  paper  (double  thickness  at  top  and 
bottom)  which  has  been  soaked  in  brine.  The  boxes  are 
now  weighed  and  carefully  packed,  after  which  they  are 
trimmed  down  to  a  weight  of  57  pounds,  which  allows  one 
pound  for  shrinkage.  Finish  the  packing  by  placing  a 


114 


CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 


• 


\ 


Fig.  29.— Simplex  churn. 

double  thickness  of  parchment  paper  over  the  top  and  upon 
this  oversaturated  brine. 

Butter  shipped  to  tropical  countries  is  packed  in  tin 
cans  which  are  hermetically  sealed. 

Paraffining  Butter  Packages.  During  recent  years 
buttermakers  and  butter  dealers  have  suffered  consider- 
able losses  from  moldy  butter  caused  by  the  growth  of 
mold  on  the  liners  and  on  the  inside  of  the  tubs.  Rogers 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  has  shown 
that  this  trouble  can  be  prevented  with  certainty  by  coat- 
ing the  inside  of  the  tub  with  a  layer  of  paraffin.  He 
says:  "With  paraffining  not  only  are  the  molds  and 
their  spores  already  on  the  tub  prevented  from  growing, 
but  the  wood  is  covered  with  a  surface  from  which  molds 


PACKING  AND  MARKETING  BUTTER  115 

can  not  get  nourishment.  The  wood  is  made  impervious 
to  water,  and  the  space  between  the  tub  and  the  liner 
remains  filled  with  water,  so  that  the  molds  which  may 
be  on  the  liner  can  not  get  the  supply  of  air  necessary 
to  their  growth."  He  has  also  shown  that  loss  from 
shrinkage  is  largely  prevented  in  this  way. 

Testimonials  from  buttermakers  indicate  that  the  prac- 
tice of  paraffining  tubs  is  giving  good  satisfaction  and 
many  have  already  adopted  it  as  a  permanent  feature  in 
creamery  work. 

To  secure  the  best  results  from  the  paraffin,  it  should 
be  applied  at  a  temperature  of  about  240°  F.,  immediately 
after  steaming  the  tub.  The  steaming  may  or  may  riot 
be  preceded  by  soaking;  under  present  conditions,  how- 
ever, soaking  is  recommended,  if  for  no  other  reason  than 
to  give  tubs  their  full  weight.  "Butter  dealers  are 
accustomed  to  handle  soaked  tubs  and  where  they  are 
not  soaked,  the  creamery  is  liable  to  lose  an  amount  of 
butter  equal  to  the  difference  between  the  weights  of  the 
soaked  and  unsoaked  tubs. 

Special  machines  are  now  upon  the  market  for  paraf- 
fining tubs.  The  paraffin  may,  however,  be  applied  by 
pouring  the  same  into  the  tub  and  rotating  the  latter  until 
it  is  entirely  coated.  A  brush  may  also  be  used  for  this 
purpose.  Those  who  contemplate  paraffining  should  in- 
vestigate the  merits  of  the  machines  now  upon  the  market. 

Printing  Cold  Butter;  Until  recently  the  common 
practice  has  been  to  print  butter  directly  from  the  churn 
by  using  printers  of  the  style  shown  in  Fig  28.  With 
the  advent  of  the  "cold"  butter  printers  or  cutters,  much 
butter  is  being  printed  outside  the  creameries,  and  the 
latter  are  also  adopting  the  practice  of  cooling  the  butter 
before  printing.  Cold  butter  makes  better  looking  prints, 


116  CREAMERY   BUTTER  MAKING 

injures  the  butter  less,  causes  less  water  to  be  lost,  facili- 
tates the  wrapping,  and  makes  it  easier  to  pack  the  butter. 
The  butter  is  preferably  packed  directly  from  the  churn 
into  square  boxes  of  a  size  to  fit  the  printer.  Where  butter 
is  printed  from  tubs,  there  is  too  much  butter  left  in 
irregular  pieces,  which  are  hard  to  repack  and  must  be 
disposed  of  in  bulk. 

MARKETING    BUTTER. 

The  producer  of  any  commodity  is  always  confronted 
with  the  problem  of  finding  the  best  markets  for  his 
product.  Indeed  his  success  is  measured  more  or  less  by 
his  ability  in  handling  this  end  of  the  business. 

Buttermakers  lose  thousands  and  thousands  of  dollars 
every  year  because  they  do  not  fully  understand  how  to 
manage  the  sale  of  their  product.  They  fall  into  the 
clutches  of  men  without  credit  or  credentials  who  offer 
big  prices  but  no  returns.  Swindlers  are  always  on  the 
lookout  for  victims  and  every  year  many  buttermakers 
are  entrapped  by  them.  To  the  one  who  is  just  beginning 
to  seek  a  market  for  his  butter  the  following  course  of 
procedure  is  recommended. 

1.  Find  the  names  of  three  or  more  leading  reputable 
butter  firms  in  the  leading  butter  markets  by  inquiring  of 
men    from    whom   trustworthy   information   may  be   ex- 
pected. 

2.  Divide  a  day's  standard  make  among  these  butter 
firms  and  instruct  each  to  send  you  statement  as  to  the 
price  they  can  give  you  net  (f.  o.  b.)  at  your  station  for 
regular  shipments,  the  price  to  be  based  on  quotations  of 
some  leading  market.     Inform  them  further  that  you  are 
ready  and  willing  to  comply  with  their  demands  as  to 
color,  package,  and  salt,  in  future  shipments. 


PACKING  AND  MARKETING  BUTTER  117 

3.  Ship  your  butter  to  the  firm  that  offers  you  the  best 
price,  but  do  not  deal  with  this  firm  exclusively.     A  tub 
should  occasionally  be  sent  to  a  new  and  reliable  firm 
with  a  view  to  securing  better  prices. 

4.  Remember,  however,  that  it  requires  time  to  estab- 
lish a  good  trade  for  butter.    Frequent  changes  from  one 
firm  to  another  are  therefore  undesirable. 

5.  Do  not  sell  butter  on  commission,  but  ask  for  prices 
f.  o.  b.  your  station,  based  on  some  market  quotation  like 
New  York,  Chicago  or  Elgin. 

6.  Demand  that  payment  shall  be  made  for  each  ship- 
ment of  butter  within  two  weeks  after  it  is  sent  out. 

7.  Never  send  a  firm  a  third  shipment  until  the  first 
has  been  paid  for. 

8.  Butter  that  is  not  up  to  the   standard  should  be 
marked  and  the  firm  properly   instructed  regarding  its 
disposition.     An  attempt  to  crowd  in  an  inferior  ship- 
ment may  cost  you  your  regular  trade. 

9.  Do  not  feel  hurt  when  criticisms  come  regarding 
defects  in  your  butter  but  seek  to  overcome  them. 

10.  Always  allow  one-half  pound  of  butter  for  shrink- 
age on  fifty  and  sixty  pound  tubs.  If  this  allowance  proves 
inadequate  it  indicates  that  the  tubs  have  not  been  properly 
soaked  or  that  the  "house"  is  cutting  you  on  weights. 

11.  Never  contract  butter  for  more  than  a  year  at  a 
time. 

How  to  Sell  to  Commission  Houses.  A  common 
mistake  in  marketing  butter  is  to  sell  it  at  prices  based 
upon  the  score  of  the  butter.  This  places  the  butter- 
maker  at  the  mercy  of  the  commission  man  who  may,  or 
may  not,  give  an  honest  score.  If  he  is  not  strictly 
honest  he  may  easily  place  butter  that  would 
naturally  grade  as  extras  in  the  class  of  firsts,  and  butter 


118  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

that  would  naturally  grade  as  firsts  in  the  class  of  seconds. 

One  of  the  best  methods  of  selling  butter  to  commis- 
sion houses  is  as  follows :  Furnish  the  buyer  enough 
samples  of  butter  to  give  him  a  good  idea  as  to  the  aver- 
age quality  of  the  butter  produced  by  the  creamery.  An 
agreement  can  then  be  made  as  to  the  price  the  creamery 
shall  receive  for  regular  shipments,  the  price  to  be  based 
upon  some  standard  market  quotation.  If,  for  example, 
the  buyer  agrees  that  the  quality  of  the  butter  merits  one- 
half  cent  above  Elgin,  and  the  seller  is  satisfied  with  this 
price,  future  shipments  shall  be  paid  for  at  the  rate  of 
one-half  cent  above  Elgin  until  such  time  as  either  party 
may  become  dissatisfied  with  the  original  agreement.  If 
the  butter  maker  feels  that  he  is  receiving  a  good  price 
for  his  butter,  he  will  do  his  best  to  maintain  the  standard 
of  his  product. 

Selling  to  Retailers  and  Wholesalers.  Wherever  pos- 
sible creameries  should  try  to  sell  their  butter  direct  to 
retailers  and  wholesale  houses  and  in  this  way  save  the 
commission  man's  profits.  This  method  of  marketing,  of 
course,  necessitates  visiting  retailers  and  wholesalers  in 
nearby  cities,  but  this  trouble  will  be  more  than  compen- 
sated for  by  bringing  the  buttermaker  in  closer  touch 
with  the  markets  and  with  general  market  requirements. 

Branding  Butter.  As  with  hundreds  of  other  com- 
modities, the  branding  of  good  butter  is  absolutely  essen- 
tial in  creating  a  strong  demand  for  it.  A  high  quality 
butter  without  a  distinguishing  mark  is  bound  to  sell  at 
a  disadvantage  because  consumers  are  not  willing  to  pay 
high  prices  for  products  about  whose  quality  they  have 
no  positive  assurance.  The  brand  advertises  the  butter 
and  increases  the  demand  for  it,  and  an  increased  demand 
is  always  followed  by  better  prices. 


CHAPTER  XL 

CALCULATING  DIVIDENDS. 

I.  Whole  Milk.  It  is  customary  to  pay  for  milk  at 
creameries  once  a  month.  Such  payment  is  called  the 
monthly  dividend.  The  method  by  which  this  dividend 
is  calculated  depends,  o£  course,  on  the  basis  upon  which 
the  milk  is  bought.  Fortunately  the  large  majority  of 
creameries  now  pay  for  it  according  to  the  butter  fat  con- 
tent. Milk  so  paid  for  is  spoken  of  as  being  bought  by  the 
"Babcock  test"  or  on  the  "fat  basis."  Since  it  makes 
butter  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  fat  it  contains,  the 
Babcock  test  or  fat  basis  is  manifestly  the  only  just  way 
of  buying  milk  at  creameries.  This  method  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  detail. 

CALCULATING  DIVIDENDS  ON   A  FAT  BASIS. 

The  different  steps  in  this  calculation  are  indicated  as 
follows : 

1.  Find  the  total  pounds  of  milk  delivered  by  each 
patron  for  the  month. 

2.  Find  each  patron's  average  percentage  of  butter  fat 
for  the  month  by  averaging  up  the  number  of  tests. 

3.  Multiply  each  patron's  total  milk  for  the  month  by 
the  average  percentage  of  butter  fat  it  contains,  the  prod- 
uct will  be  the  total  pounds  of  butter  fat  delivered. 

4.  Add  together  all  butter  fat  delivered  by  the  patrons 
for  the  month,  the  sum  will  be  the  total  butter  fat. 

5.  Determine  the  total  gross  receipts  for  the  month 
by  multiplying  each  sale  of  butter  by  the  price  received 

119 


120  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

per  pound ;  the  sum  obtained  by  adding  all  the  sales  will 
be  the  total  gross  receipts. 

6.  Calculate  the  amount  charged*  to  cover  running  ex- 
penses by  multiplying  the  total  pounds  of  butter  by  the 
price  charged  for  making. 

7.  Subtract  the  sum  charged  to  cover  running  ex- 
penses from  the  total  gross  receipts,  the  difference  will 
be  the  net  money  due  patrons. 

8.  The  total  net  money  divided  by  the  total  pounds 
of  butter  fat  will  give  the  average  price  per  pound  of 
butter  fat. 

9.  Each  patron's  share  of  the  monthly  dividend  is  now 
found  by  multiplying  his  total  butter  fat  by  the  average 
price  per  pound  of  butter  fat  obtained  in  8. 

To  make  the  above  steps  perfectly  clear  let  us  calculate 
a  monthly  dividend  at  a  creamery  in  which  A,  B,  and  C 
are  the  patrons. 

Milk  Pounds. 
Date.  ABC 

I.       August  i 260        150        312 

August  2 255        151        300 

August  3 261        145        305 


August  31 240        162        301 

Total 8,091  ,  4,650     9,405 

Per  cent  of  butter  fat. 
Date.  ABC 

2.       August  7 3-3  4-2  3-6 

August  15 3-4  4-3  3-6 

August  23 3-4  4-2  3-7 

August  31 3-3  4-0  3-6 

4|   13.4    4[   '6-7    4|   14-5 
Average  test 3.35          4.17          3.62 


CALCULATING  DIVIDENDS  121 


A 

Total  mill 
8091 

?.        A 
X 

ve.  test. 

4- 
Total  butter  fat. 
271  .05  Ibs. 

B 

46^0 

x 

A.   17        = 

193.91  Ibs. 

c 

Q  dXK 

x 

t  •  -1/ 
3.62      = 

340.46  Ibs. 

Total  butter  fat  at  Creamery  =      805. 42 Ibs. 

Sales  of  butter. 

205  Ibs.  at  23  cts.  =  $47-15 
240  Ibs.  at  23.5  cts.  =  56.40 
214  Ibs.  at  24  cts.  =  51.36 
269  Ibs.  at  24  cts.  =  64.56 


Total.  .  .  928  Total  .......  $219.47 

6.  Total  pounds  of  butter  =  928. 

Price  charged  for  making  =  3  cts.  per  pound. 
928  X  .03  —  $27.84  =  Amount    charged    to    cover    running 
expenses. 

7.  $219.47  —  $27.84  =  $191.  63  =  Net  money  due  patrons. 

8.  $191.  63  -=-805.42  =  $.2379  —  Average  price  per  pound  but- 

ter fat. 

9.  271.05  X  $.2379  =  $64.48  =  A's  money. 
193.91  X    .2379=   46.i3  =  B'smoney. 
340.46  X    .2379=   81.00=  C's  money. 


OVERRUN. 

In  a  well  conducted  creamery  the  total  pounds  of  butter 
is  always  greater  than  the  total  pounds  of  butter  fat.  The 
excess  is  called  the  "overrun." 

In  the  above  problem  805.42  pounds  of  butter  fat  made  928 
pounds  of  butter. 

928.00  —  805.42  =  122.58  =  No.  pounds  overrun. 
122.58  -r-  805.42  =    15.2   =  Per  cent  overrun. 


122  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

Overrun  from  Milk  and  Cream.  Where  up-to-date 
methods  are  employed  in  manufacturing  butter,  the  aver- 
age overrun  from  milk  is  from  17  to  18%  and  that  from 
cream,  19  to  20%.  The  smaller  overrun  from  milk  is 
due  to  the  loss  of  fat  in  skimming.  See  "whole  milk  and 
cream/'  page  126. 

The  overrun  will  vary  according  to  the  following  condi- 
tions: (i)  efficiency  in  skimming  and  churning;  (2) 
richness  of  milk  and  cream;  (3)  composition  of  butter, 
especially  with  reference  to  the  percentage  of  water ;  and 
(4)  loss  of  butter  fat  in  vats,  ripeners,  cans,  printing, 
packing,  etc.  Rich  milk  and  cream  yield  a  somewhat 
higher  overrun  than  milk  and  cream  relatively  poor  in 
butter  fat. 

MONTHLY  STATEMENT  I. 

When  the  monthly  payments  are  made  each  patron  is 
presented  with  an  envelope  upon  which  is  printed  his  indi- 
vidual account  with  the  creamery  and  also  the  entire 
transactions  of  the  creamery.  A  check  on  the  nearest 
bank,  or  the  money,  is  placed  in  the  envelope  and  handed 
to  the  patron  on  "pay  day."  Below  is  shown  such  a 
monthly  statement: 


CALCULATING  DIVIDENDS  123 

Creamery  Co. 


IN  ACCOUNT  WITH 


Mr. 


For  the  month  of_ 


Balance  due  you, 

Total  Ibs.  milk  delivered  at  creamery, 

Average  test  at  creamery, 

Total  Ibs.  of  Butter  fat  at  creamery, 

Ibs.    @ 


Sales 

of 
Butter. 

Less 


cts.  for  making. 


Balance  due  patrons, 
Per  cent,  overrun 
Testing  witnessed  by_ 


190_ 


Cr. 

No   Ibs   milk  delivered 

Dr. 

Lbs  butter  @  

by  you       ~ 

C  ans  @  

Average  test 

Cash         -        -        -       

No  Ibs  of  butter  fat              

Hauling,  @  ...   

Price  per  Ib    "       " 

per  100  Ibs          -          

$ 

$  

.  Prest. 

_Sec'y. 


124  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

AVERAGING  TESTS. 

In  whole  milk  creameries  the  amount  of  milk  delivered 
from  day  to  day  and  the  test  of  the  same  vary  so  little 
during  any  month  that  buttermakers  have  found  the 
method  of  averaging  tests  as  indicated  on  page  120  en- 
tirely satisfactory.  From  a  theoretical  standpoint,  this 
method  of  averaging  tests  is  open  to  criticism  and  should 
not  be  employed  where  tests  vary  much  from  one  week 
to  another  as  is  usually  the  case  in  cream  deliveries.  In 
the  •  latter  case,  if  weekly  composite  samples  are  tested, 
the  total  cream  delivered  each  week  is  multiplied  by -its 
test.  Where  the  tests  vary  greatly  from  one  testing  to 
another,  the  general  rule  to  follow  in  calculating  the 
amount  of  butter  fat  delivered  by  each  patron  is  to  mul- 
tiply each  test  by  the  amount  of  cream  (or  milk)  it  re- 
presents. 

MONTHLY   STATEMENT  II. 

The  preceding  pages  show  the  correct  method  of  calcu- 
lating the  dividend  at  creameries.  The  author  has  learned 
from  experience,  however,  that  it  is  often  difficult  to  make 
clear  to  patrons  how  the  price  per  pound  of  butter  fat  is 
obtained.  Frequently  also  competing  creameries  are  in- 
clined to  cut  a  little  on  the  test  to  increase  the  price  per 
pound  of  butter  fat.  Where  trouble  from  these  sources 
is  experienced  dividends  may  be  apportioned  on  the  plan 
of  the  monthly  statement  shown  on  the  next  page. 


CALCULATING  DIVIDENDS  125 

Creamery  Co. 


IN  ACCOUNT  WITH 


Mr. 


for  the    month    of 

100 

Cr. 

No.  Ibs.  milk  delivered 
t>y  you,     -     -     -    

Dr. 

Lbs  butter                   (3) 

Average  test,        -        

No  Ibs  of  butter  fat 

C  ans  @  

(    %  

Overrun  \ 

Cash,       -        -        -         

(   ibs  

Total  Ibs.  of  butter         

Price  per  Ib      "                          •  « 

$ 

9  

Balance  due  you, 

Total  Ibs.  milk  delivered  at  creamery, 

Average  test  at  creamery, 

Total  Ibs.  of  Butter  fat  at  creamery, 

Ibs.    @ 


Sales 

of 
Butter. 


I 


Average   price,   per   Ib.  butter 

cts.  for  making. 
Testing  witnessed  by 


Prest. 

Sec'y. 


126  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING     . 

In  this  method  the  net  price  per  pound  of  butter  is 
used  instead  of  the  price  per  pound  of  butter  fat.  The 
method  involves  a  little  more  work  as  each  patron's  over- 
run in  pounds  must  be  calculated  separately.  For  clear- 
ness, however,  we  believe  no  other  method  surpasses  this. 

The  price  of  butter  net  to  the  patrons  is  obtained  by 
subtracting  the  price  charged  for  making  from  the  aver- 
age price  for  which  the  butter  has  sold.  This  average 
price  is  found  by  dividing  the  total  gross  receipts  by  the 
total  pounds  of  butter  at  the  creamery,  thus : 

Sales  of  butter. 

205  Ibs.  at  23  cts.     =  $47-15 

240  Ibs.  at  2^/2  cts.=  56.40 

214  Ibs.  at  24  cts.     =  51.36 

269  Ibs.  at  24  cts.     =  64.56 


Total..  928  Total $219.47 

$219.47-^-928  =  $.2365  =  Average  price  for  which  butter 
was  sold.  $.2365  less  three  cents  for  making  =  $.2065  = 
price  of  butter  net  patrons.  The  butter  fat  plus  overrun 
multiplied  by  the  net  price  gives  each  patron's  portion  of 
the  dividend. 

II.  Whole  Milk  and  Cream.  Where  both  whole  milk 
and  cream  are  received  at  the  creamery,  the  calculation 
of  dividends  for  cream  patrons  differs  from  that  for  whole 
milk  patrons  in  one  point;  namely,  in  increasing  each 
cream  patron's  total  butter  fat  by  2%.  The  reason  for 
this  is  that  the  cream  patrons  are  credited  with  the  butter 
fat  found  in  the  cream,  while  the  whole  milk  patrons  are 
credited  with  all  the  butter  fat  found  in  the  milk,  which 
is  about  2%  more  than  would  be  found  in  the  cream  from 
the  same  milk,  2%  of  the  butter  fat  being  lost  in  the 
skim-milk.  To  illustrate : 


CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING  127 

A  delivers  6,500  pounds  of  milk  testing  4.0%. 

B  delivers  600  pounds  of  cream  testing  30%. 

A's  total  fat  =  6,500  X  .04  =  260  pounds. 

B's  total  fat  =  600  X  .30  =  180  pounds. 

To  increase  B's  fat  by  2%,  we  multiply  180  by  1.02 
which  equals  183.6. 

In  making  the  dividend,  therefore,  A  is  paid  for  260 
pounds  of  butter  fat  and  B  for  183.6  pounds. 

THE  TWO  PER  CENT — HOW  CALCULATED. 

In  a  well  conducted  creamery  the  average  loss  of  fat 
in  the  skim-milk  should  not  be  more  than  .078%.  Dividing 
this  figure  by  the  average  percentage  of  fat  in  milk,  3.9, 
we  get  .02.  So  that  in  the  separating  process  .02  pound 
of  fat  is  lost  in  the  skim-milk  for  every  pound  of  fat 
present  in  the  milk. 

From  the  above  calculation  it  will  be  seen  that  the  cream 
factor  (2%)  would  necessarily  vary  with  the  efficiency 
of  skimming  and  the  average  test  of  the  milk.  To  deter- 
mine what  this  shall  be  for  any  particular  creamery  divide 
the  average  loss  of  fat  in  the  skim-milk  by  the  average 
test  of  the  milk  at  the  creamery. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

THEORETICAL  OVERRUN. 

For  the  purpose  of  instructing  patrons  with  regard  to 
the  percentage  of  overrun  the  following  calculation  is  sub- 
mitted which  incidentally  involves  the  calculation  of  the 
amount  of  skim-milk  and  buttermilk  to  be  returned  from 
100  pounds  of  milk,  a  calculation  with  which  every  but- 
ter maker  should  be  familiar. 

i.  To  calculate  the  amount  of  skim-milk  per  100 
pounds  of  milk. 

Rule:  Divide  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  milk  by  the  per 
cent  of  fat  in  cream  and  multiply  the  result  by  100;  the 
product  subtracted  from  100  will  be  the  number  pounds 
of  skim-milk. 

Example :  How  much  skim-milk  is  obtained  from  100 
pounds  of  4%  milk  when  the  separator  delivers  a  40% 
cream  ? 

4  -s-  40  =  .10,  .10  X  100  =  10,  loo  —  10  =  90  = 
No.  Ibs.  skim-milk. 

COROLLARIES.  ( i )  The  richer  the  milk  and  the  poorer 
the  cream  the  less  skim-milk. 

(2.)  The  poorer  the  milk  and  the  richer  the  cream  the 
more  skim-milk. 

To  allow  for  variations  in  richness  of  cream  and  small 
overweights  at  the  creamery,  3  should  be  subtracted  from 
the  calculated  amount  of  skim-milk.  Thus  in  the  problem 
above,  the  skim-milk  should  be  distributed  on  the  basis 
of  87  instead  of  90  pounds  per  100  pounds  of  milk  as 
calculated. 

128 


THEORETICAL  OVhRRUN  129 

2.  To  calculate  the  amount  of  buttermilk  per  100 
pounds  of  milk. 

Rule:  This  is  approximately  found  by  increasing  the 
pounds  of  butter  fat  in  the  cream  by  one-sixth  and  sub- 
tracting the  result  -from  the  total  pounds  of  cream. 

Example :  How  much  buttermilk  from  100  pounds  of 
4%  milk  yielding  10  pounds  of  cream  testing  40%  ? 

10  X  .40  =  4.0  —  Ibs.   of  butter  fat. 
4X11/6  =  4.66,    10  —  4.66  =  5.34=  No.   Ibs. 
buttermilk. 

OVERRUN.  The  method  of  calculating  the  actual  over- 
run at  creameries  has  already  been  discussed  in  Chapter 
XL  With  the  following  known  conditions  the  theoretical 
overrun  can  be  calculated  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy : 

(1)  Average  per  cent  of  fat  in  butter. 

(2)  Loss  of  fat  in  skim-milk. 

(3)  Loss  of  fat  in  buttermilk. 

Problem :  100  pounds  of  milk  testing  4%  yields  cream 
testing  40%.  Test  of  skim-milk  is  .05%,  that  of  butter- 
milk .15%.  Per  cent  of  fat  in  butter  is  84.  Calculate 
butter  and  overrun. 

By  applying  the  rules  for  calculating  skim-milk  and 
buttermilk  we  find  that  there  will  be  90  pounds  of  skim- 
milk  and  5.34  pounds  buttermilk. 

.  90  X  .05  =  .045  =  lb .  fat  in  skim-milk. 
.0534  X  .15  =  . 008=  lb.   fat  in  buttermilk. 

Total  loss  =  .053 

4  —  .053=   3,947  =  fat  made  into  butter. 
3.947 .-r-  .84=   4.70   =lbs.  butter  made. 

4.70  —  4=     .70   =  overrun  in  Ibs. 
7-5-4X  100=17.5     =  overrun  in  per  cent. 
9 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

HANDLING  OF  SKIMMILK  AND  BUTTERMILK. 

In  recent  years  much  attention  has-  been  given  to  the 
problem  of  skim-milk  distribution  at  creameries.  The  old 
way  of  weighing  on  a  common  pair  of  scales  is  too  slow 
and  tedious.  Efforts  to  improve  upon  this  method  of 
weighing  have  resulted  in  bringing  upon  the  market  vari- 
ous kinds  of  automatic  weighing  and  measuring  devices 
such  as  our  skim-milk  weighers  and  check  pumps.  With 
the  skim-milk  weigher  the  patron  drops  into  the  machine 
a  check  corresponding  to  the  amount  of  milk  delivered, 
and  the  amount  of  skim-milk  called  for  by  the  check  is 
weighed  or  measured  out  automatically.  In  the  case  of 
the  check  pump  the  operation  is  somewhat  different.  A 
check  is  dropped  into  the  pump  and,  instead  of  flowing 
out,  the  amount  of  skim-milk  called  for  by  the  check  is 
pumped  out. 

Some  of  these  skimmilk  weighers  are  giving  good 
satisfaction  when  properly  handled.  But  some  of 
the  creameries  are  still  adhering  to  the  old  method  of 
weighing  on  a  common  platform  scales  which,  though 
tedious,  is  still  perhaps  the  most  accurate  method. 

Attention  is  here  called  to  an  automatic  valve  closing 
arrangement,  shown  in  Fig.  30,  which  reduces  the  labor 
of  weighing  on  a  platform  scales  at  least  fifty  per  cent. 
A  is  a  common  pair  of  scales,  B  an  ordinary  receiving  can 
with  a  two  inch  valve  instead  of  a  faucet,  and  C  a  device 
which  closes  the  inlet  valve,  D,  when  the  proper  amount 
of  skirn-milk  has  run  into  the  can. 

It  will  be  seen  that  one  end  of  the  rod,  C,  is  attached  to 

130 


SKIMMILK  AND  BUTTERMILK 


131 


the  beam  rod  of  the  scales,  while  upon  the  other  rests  the 
handle  which  opens  and  closes  the  skim-milk  valve.  When 
the  beam  rises  the  connection  is  broken  and  the  weight 
of  the  handle  closes  the  valve.  This  makes  it  an  auto- 
matic valve.  Without  this  device  the  closing  of  the  valve 
at  the  right  time  requires  a  good  deal  of  watching  which 
consumes  too  much  time. 

A  skim-milk  table  like  that  shown  below  should  be 
posted  in  a  conspicuous  place  so  that  no  time  needs  to  be 
wasted  in  calculating  each  patron's  skim-milk. 

SKIM-MELK    TABLE-85    POUNDS    PER    100 
POUNDS    MILK. 


Milk. 

sf 

a  a 

cc 

Milk. 

|1 
00 

Milk. 

11 

00 

Milk. 

1! 

00 

10 

8 

110 

93 

210 

178 

310 

263 

20 

17 

120 

102 

220 

187 

320 

272 

30 

25 

130 

110 

230 

195 

330 

280 

40 

34 

140 

119 

240 

204 

340 

289 

50 

42 

150 
160 

127 
136 

250 

212 

350 

297 

60 

51 

260 

221 

360 

306 

70 

59 

170 

144 

270 

229 

370 

314 

80 

68 

180 

153 
161 

280 

238 

380 

323 

90 

76 

190 

290 

246 

390 

331 

100 

85 

200 

170 

300 

255 

400 

340 

132 


CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 


With  the  automatic  valve  it  is  possible  for  the  man  who 
weighs  in  the  milk  also  to  weigh  out  the  skim-milk  with 
little  additional  work.  The  device  is  unpatented  and  costs 
not  more  than  one  dollar.  Attached  to  an  ordinary  plat- 


Fig.  30.  -Apparatus  for  distributing  skim-milk  and  buttermilk. 

form  scales,  it  furnishes  with  them  an  ideal  skim-milk 
weigher  which  is  cheap,  simple,  accurate,  and  needs  no 
repairs. 


PASTEURIZATION  OF  SKIM  MILK. 

Objects;      There  are  two  main  purposes  in  pasteuriz- 
ing skimmilk:     One  is  to  preserve  the  feeding  value  by 


SKI  MM  ILK  AND  BUTTERMILK  133 

keeping  it  sweet ;  the  other  is  to  kill  the  tubercle,  bacilli 
that  may  be  found  in  it. 

To  secure  the  greatest  feeding  value  of  skimmilk  it 
must  be  fed  sweet.  During  the  summer  months  skim- 
milk  as  it  is  ordinarily  returned  from  creameries  keeps 
sweet  but  a  short  time,  a  fact  which  has  compelled  many 
a  farmer  to  purchase  a  hand  separator  and  separate  the 
milk  at  the  farm. 

The  danger  of  spreading  tuberculosis  among  cattle  and 
swine  through  creamery  skimmilk  is  so  well  established 
now  that  several  states  have  passed  laws  making  pasteur- 
ization of  skimmilk  compulsory.  Indeed  such  laws  have 
existed  in  Denmark  for  many  years. 

Either  of  the  above  purposes  should  be  sufficient  to 
cause  butter  makers  and  creamery  managers  to  feel  it 
their  duty  to  pasteurize  the  skimmilk  without  being 
driven  to  it  by  law. 

Where  the  skimmilk  is  returned  hot  from  the  cream- 
ery, pasteurization  has  the  additional  advantage  of  steriliz- 
ing the  milk  cans. 

Pasteurizing  Temperature.-  The  minimum  tempera- 
ture should  be  placed  at  176°  F,  which  makes  it  possible 
to  determine  by  means  of  Storch's  test  (see  appendix) 
whether  the  skimmilk  has  been  pasteurized  or  not. 

This  minimum  limit  is  necessary  to  insure  a  thor- 
ough destruction  of  bacteria.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to 
fix  a  maximum  limit  of  temperature  since  it  is  difficult 
to  exceed  190°  F,  and  little  objection  can  be  raised  to 
approaching  this  temperature.  Indeed  it  is  believed  that 
where  thorough  pasteurization  is  desired  it  is  advisable 
to  keep  the  temperature  close  to  190°  F. 

Methods  of  Pasteurizing.     Pasteurization   is   accom- 


134 


CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 


plished  (i)  by  admitting  either  "live"  or  "exhaust"  steam 
directly  to  the  skimmilk;  (2)  by  admitting  either  live  or 
exhaust  steam  to  pasteurizers  which  do  not  allow  the  steam 
to  come  in  contact  with  the  skimmilk.  The  former  is 
usually  spoken  of  as  the  direct  method,  the  latter  as  the 
indirect  method. 

Direct  Method.  This  is  the  method  most  commonly 
employed  by  creameries  at  the  present  time,  and  un- 
doubtedly so  because  it  does  not  require  any  special  out- 
lay for  pasteurizers.  Where  this  method  is  employed  the 


EXHAUST    STEAM 


SKIM 


CAPACITY 


MIUK     TANK 


10.000  L.BS- 


SKIM    MII_K 
WE.ICHE»R_ 


0 


SKIM  MIL-K 
PUMP 


Fig.  31.— Skim-milk  tank  and  pasteurizer. 


heating  is  usually  accomplished  by  the  use  of  the  exhaust 
steam  from  the  engine. 

There  are  three  objections  to  this  method  of  pasteuriz- 


SKIM  MILK  AND  BUTTERMILK  135 

ing:  (i)  the  dilution  of  the  skimmilk  by  condensed 
steam;  (2)  the  cylinder  oil  carried  into  the  milk  where 
exhaust  steam  is  used;  and  (3)  the  trouble  from  ex- 
cessive foaming. 

There  are  pasteurizers  upon  the  market  provided  with 
oil  traps  which  have  been  reported  as  eliminating  the 
trouble  from  cylinder  oil.  The  trouble  from  foaming  can 
also  be  largely  eliminated.  Various  so-called  "foam  kill- 
ers" have  been  placed  upon  the  market  which  have  been 
more  or  less  successful  in  obviating  this  trouble. 

Fig.  31  illustrates  a  method  of  handling  skimmilk 
which  prevents,  to  a  great  extent,  the  difficulty  usually  ex- 
perienced from  foam. 

The  pasteurizer  may  be  placed  on  top  of  the  skimmilk 
tank  and  the  pasteurized  skimmilk  allowed  to  flow 
through  a  pipe  which  runs  to  within  an  inch  or  an  inch 
and  a  half  of  the  bottom  of  the  tank.  A  pipe  so  placed 
will  tend  to  destroy  a  portion  of  the  foam  formed  in  the 
heater.  The  tank  is  of  ample  size  to  hold  the  foam  not 
thus  destroyed,  which,  during  the  early  summer,  is  quite 
considerable.  The  larger  the  tank  the  less  trouble  will 
be  experienced  from  the  foam. 

While  the  trouble  from  oil  and  foam  may  be  largely 
obviated,  the  dilution  resulting  from  the  condensed  steam 
must  always  stand  as  an  objection  to  the  direct  method  of 
pasteurizing  skimmilk. 

Indirect  Method.  Skimmilk  can  be  pasteurized  with 
the  "continuous"  style  of  pasteurizers  in  the  same  way  as 
cream.  This  method  is  now  employed  in  many  creameries 
and  should  be  adopted  wherever  possible.  The  extra  cost 
of  a  pasteurizer  is  more  than  compensated  for  in  doing 
away  with  the  objections  inherent  in  the  direct  method  of 


136  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

pasteurizing.  With  the  indirect  method  as  with  the 
direct,  either  live  or  exhaust  steam,  or  both,  may  be  used. 
Cooling  Undesirable.  While  cooling  the  skimmilk 
has  some  advantages,  these  are  more  than  counter- 
balanced by  the  expense  necessary  in  doing  this  and  by 
losing  the  sterilizing  effect  of  the  hot  milk  on  the  cans. 
The  danger  from  tubercle  organisms  cannot  be  eliminated 
by  placing  (cooled)  pasteurized  skimmilk  in  cans  cori' 
taining  residues  of  the  original,  infected  milk. 

Handling  Buttermilk.  To  insure  a  just  distribution 
of  buttermilk  at  creameries  it  is  necessary  to  either  weigh 
or  measure  it  out  to  the  patrons.  The  long  cylindrical 
can,  X,  shown  at  the  left  in  Fig.  30,  illustrates  a  very  con- 
venient and  satisfactory  measuring  device.  The  measur- 
ing is  done  by  means  of  a  long  hollow  shaft,  N,  which 
consists  of  two  boards  between  which  a  pointer,  M,  is 
made  to  slide.  Attached  to  the  pointer  is  a  string  which 
passes  over  pulleys,  O  and  P,  and  ends  in  the  buttermilk 
can  where  it  is  attached  to  'a  wooden  disc  floating  on  top 
of  the  buttermilk.  As  the  buttermilk  flows  into  the  can 
the  disc  rises,  causing  the  pointer  to  sink  in  the  shaft. 
Marks  on  the  shaft  indicate  the  number  of  pailfuls 
measured  out. 

Where  milk  or  cream  is  infected  with  tubercle  organ- 
isms, the  butter  and  buttermilk  from  the  same  will  also 
be  infected.  To  eliminate  the  danger  from  these  sources, 
all  cream  should  be  ,  pasteurized  for  buttermaking,  and 
fortunately  this  is  the  prevailing  tendency.  Buttermilk 
can  not  be  pasteurized  as  successfully  as  skimmilk, 
because  the  high  temperature  necessary  will  tend  to  cause 
the  curd  to  separate. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

BUTTER    JUDGING. 

Expert  butter  judges,  like  great  musicians,  are  "born" 
not  "made."  A  good  musician  must  be  born  with  a  good 
ear,  a  good  butter  judge  with  a  good  nose.  Most  people, 
however,  can  become  fair  musicians  with  proper  training, 
and  the  same  may  be  said  of  butter  judges. 

By  repeated  judging  and  comparing  of  different  sam- 
ples of  butter  one  will  soon  become  able  to  make  fair 
discriminations.  The  important  point  to  learn  is  to  know 
an  ideal  butter  when  you  see  it.  A  butter  maker  can 
not  expect  to  reach  or  even  approach  an  ideal  butter  un- 
less he  has  the  ideal  fixed  in  mind. 

One  can  learn  much  about  butter  judging  by  daily  ex- 
amining his  own  make.  But  to  become  expert,  he  must 
be  able  to  compare  his  score  with  that  of  recognized 
experts.  Dairy  conventions  and  butter  scoring  tests  offer 
excellent  opportunities  for  such  comparison. 

BASIS  FOR  JUDGING. 

Butter  is  judged  commercially  on  the  basis  of  45  points 
for  flavor,  25  for  texture,  15  for  color,  10  for  salt,  and  5 
for  package,  total  100. 

Flavor.  Strictly  speaking  flavor  means  taste.  But 
the  use  of  the  term  flavor  in  butter  judging  usually  in- 
cludes both  taste  and  aroma,  the  emphasis  resting  on  the 
latter.  Aroma  is  the  odor  noticeable  when  a  sample  of 
butter  is  held  close  to  the  nose,  hence  frequently  called 
"nose"  aroma. 

137 


138  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

It  is  difficult  to  describe  an  ideal  butter  flavor.  It  may, 
perhaps,  be  likened  to  the  flavor  of  clean,  uncontaminated, 
well  ripened  cream,  that  is,  it  should  be  rich  and  creamy. 

Texture.  This  includes  three  distinct  things :  ( i ) 
grain,  (2)  body,  and  (3)  brine. 

An  ideal  grain  is  indicated  by  a  somewhat  granular 
appearance  when  a  piece  of  butter  is  broken,  an  appear- 
ance quite  similar  to  that  of  the  broken  ends  of  a  steel 
rod. 

Body  refers  to  the  consistency  of  butter.  In  other 
words,  it  refers  to  its  degree  of  firmness  or  its  ability 
to  "set  up"  well  at  ordinary  temperatures. 

Brine  refers  to  the  amount  and  character  of  the  water 
in  butter.  It  should  be  as  clear  as  water  and  not  present 
in  such  quantities  as  to  run  off  the  trier. 

Color.  The  essential  thing  in  color  is  to  have  it 
uniform.  It  should  have  a  little  deeper  shade  than  that 
produced  by  June  pasturage.  Artificial  coloring  is  there- 
fore necessary. 

Salt.  As  with  color,  the  essential  thing  with  salt  is  to 
have  it  evenly  worked  through  the  butter  and  none  of  it 

should  remain  undissolved. 

• 

Package.  Butter  should  be  well  packed  and  the  top 
covered  with  cheese  cloth  and  saturated  brine.  The 
package  should  be  neat  and  clean  and  in  no  way  mutilated. 

BUTTER  SCORE  CARDS. 

The  score  card  contains  the  "score"  or  judgment  as 
given  by  the  judge.  In  commercial  judging  of  butter  a 
score  card  is  used  which  is  quite,  similar  to  the  one  given 
below. 


BUTTER  JUDGING 
BUTTER  SCORE  CARD. 


139 


Name 


Sample.              No. 

i 

2 

3 

Flavor                   -         45 

40 

38 

36 

- 

Texture                         25 

23 

23 

23 

Color  -         -         -        15 

15 

14 

14 

Salt                                10 

10 

10 

9 

Package                           5 

5 

5 

5 

Total  -         -            100 

93 

90 

87 

^^^^™ 

™  "™ 

^  "" 

^^^^™ 

^"™" 

Date. 


Judge_ 


In  such  scoring  no  attempt  is  made  to  point  out  the 
particular  defects  any  further  than  to  indicate  the  number 
of  points  for  each  sample.  The  total  number  of  points 
determines  the  class  to  which  the  butter  belongs.  Thus 
in  the  score  card  above,  sample  No.  I  grades  as  "extras/' 
sample  No.  2,  as  "firsts,"  and  sample  No.  3  as  "seconds." 

At  dairy  conventions  and  in  educational  butter  scoring 
tests  the  object  in  judging  is  not  so  much  to  determine  the 
score  of  the  butter  as  to  point  out  as  nearly  as  possible  the 
causes  of  any  defects  and  to  suggest  remedies  for  over- 
coming them.  The  score  card  that  may  be  used  in  this 
case  is  shown  on  the  next  page. 


140                  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 
BUTTER   SCORE    CARD 

No. 

0 

*2 

I 

Flavor.  45 

be 

1 

O 

CJ 

:  i 

£   o 

2d  Scoring. 
Date  

f  Curdy. 
Light. 
Rancid. 
Fishy. 
Feverish 
Oily  or  greasy. 
Weedy. 
Stable. 
Unclean. 
High  acid. 
I  Bitter. 

Poor  grain. 
Cloudy  brine. 
Weak  body. 
Too  much  brine. 
Greasy. 

Mottles, 
White  specks. 
Too  high. 
Too  light. 
Color  specks. 

Too  much  salt. 
(Undissolved.) 
Poor  salt. 
Lacks  salt. 

Dirty. 
i  Poorly  packed. 
Poorly  nailed. 
Poorly  lined. 

Texture  25 

Color  15 

Salt  10 

Package..  7  5 

Total    100 

Remarks : 


Judges 


Date. 


BUTTER  JUDGING  141 

A  brief  discussion  of  the  defects  indicated  on  this  score 
card  is  given  below : 

FLAVOR. 

Curdy  flavor  is  caused  by  overripened  starters  or  add- 
ing starters  to  cream  while  the  latter  is  at  too  high  a 
temperature.  Also  by  ripening  very  thin  cream  at  high 
temperatures. 

Light  flavor  is  generally  due  to  churning  cream  too 
sweet.  It  may  be  due  also  to  too  much  washing  and  to 
the  character  of  the  feed.  It  is  well  known  that  good 
succulent  June  pasturage  produces  a  higher  flavored 
butter  than  average  dry  winter  feed. 

Rancid  flavor  is  due  chiefly  to  overripened  cream.  The 
age  of  the  milk,  cream,  and  butter  is  also  frequently  the 
cause  of  rancidity.  Good  butter  exposed  to  light  and  air 
at  ordinary  temperatures  turns  rancid  in  a  very  short  time. 

Feverish  flavor  is  noticeable  principally  in  the  spring 
of  the  year  when  cows  are  turned  out  on  pasture  and  is, 
no  doubt,  due  in  most  cases  to  the  sudden  change  from 
dry  feed  to  luxuriant  pasturage.  It  is  possible  that  this 
feverish  or  grassy  odor  is  due  partly  to  the  grass  itself 
and  partly  to  a  feverish  condition  of  the  cow  caused  by 
the  sudden  change  of  feed.  We  find  that  any  feverish 
condition  of  the  cow  will  manifest  itself  in  the  milk  and 
the  products  therefrom. 

Oily  or  greasy  flavor  may  be  caused  by  churning  and 
working  butter  at  too  high  a  temperature,  or  by  keeping 
the  milk  and  cream  at  high  temperatures.  It  may  also 
be  caused  by  using  poor  color  or  too  much  color.  Bad 
smelling  color  that  shows  sediment  at  the  bottom  should 
not  be  used.  Bacteriologists  claim  that  certain  species  of 


142  CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 

bacteria  have  the  power  of  imparting  an  oily  flavor  to 
butter. 

Weedy  flavors  are  caused  by  cows  feeding  on  weeds. 
Leeks  or  wild  onions  are  frequently  the  cause  of  very 
serious  trouble  when  cows  have  free  access  to  them.  The 
trouble  may  also  be  caused  by  exposing  milk  and  cream 
to  an  atmosphere  charged  with  objectionable  odors. 

Fishy  flavor,  according  to  L.  A.  Rogers,  is  due  to 
oxidation  which  is  favored  by  a  high  acid  cream  and 
overworking.  The  latter  favors  oxidation'  by  increasing 
the  amount  of  air  in  butter. 

Stable  flavor  is  caused  by  lack  of  cleanliness  in  milking, 
and  by  keeping  milk  too  long  in,  or  near,  a  dirty  stable. 

Unclean  flavors  are  caused  by  dirty  pails,  strainers, 
and  cans,  filthy  creamery  conditions,  and  general  unclean- 
liness  in  the  care  and  handling  of  milk. 

High  acid  flavor  is  due  to  oversoured  cream  or  starter. 

Bitter  flavor  is  caused  by  keeping  cream  too  long  at 
low  temperatures. 

TEXTURE. 

Poor  grain  is  caused  by  overworking  and  overchurn- 
ing ;  also  by  too  high  temperatures  in  churning  and  work- 
ing. 

Weak  body  is  usually  caused  by  employing  too  high 
temperatures  in  the  entire  process  of  manufacture,  in- 
cluding the  ripening  of  the  cream.  These  high  tempera- 
tures usually  result  in  overripened  cream,  overchurned 
butter  and  consequently  butter  with  too  high  a  water  con- 
tent. The  character  of  the  butter  fat  also  influences  the 
body  of  the  butter. 

Too  much  brine  is  caused  chiefly  by  underworking  and 
by  churning  to  small  granules. 


BUTTER  JUDGING  143 

Cloudy  brine  is  caused  by  churning 'at  too  high  a  tem- 
perature and  also  by  granulating  too  coarse.  Insufficient 
washing  has  a  tendency  to  produce  a  cloudy  brine. 

Greasy  butter  is  caused  by  overworking  or  by  handling 
at  too  high  temperatures. 

COLOR. 

Mottles  are  discolorations  in  butter  caused  by  the  un- 
even distribution  of  salt.  Those  portions  of  the  butter 
that  contain  the  most  salt  will  have  the  deepest  color 
because  of  the  attraction  of  salt  for  color.  Mottles  can 
always  be  removed  from  butter  by  working,  but  frequently 
the  conditions  are  such  as  to  require  overworking  to 
secure  this  end. 

Van  Slyke  and  Hart  have  shown  that  mottles  can  no: 
be  caused  in  butter  when  the  latter  is  thoroughly  freed 
from  proteids.  This  suggests  the  importance  of  churning 
and  washing  in  such  a  manner  as  to  remove  the  butter- 
milk as  completely  as  possible. 

The  following  are  conditions  that  favor  mottles : 

1.  Coarse  uneven  grained  salt. 

2.  Carelessly  adding  the  salt  to  the  churn. 

3.  Butter  too  cold  for  working. 

4.  Using  too  cold  or  too  warm  wash  water. 

5.  Too  much  buttermilk  in  the  butter. 

6.  Not  enough  moisture  in  butter  when  worked. 
White  specks  are  due  either  to  curd  particles  in  cream 

caused  by  overripening  and  lack  of  stirring  during  ripen- 
ing, or  to  dried  and  hardened  cream. 

Color  specks  are  tiny  specks  of  color  caused  by  using 
a  poor  grade  of  color,  old  color,  or  color  that  has  been 
kept  at  too  high  a  temperature. 


144  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

SALT. 

Undissolved  salt  may  be  due  to  three  things : 

1.  Poor  salt. 

2.  Too  much  draining  before  salting. 

3.  Salting  the  butter  at  too  low  a  temperature. 

SAMPLE   FOR  SCORING. 

j 

In  judging  butter  only  a  small  sample  is  necessary 
which  is  secured  by  inserting  a  "trier"  into  the  butter  and 
giving  it  a  whole  turn,  after  which  the  plug  of  butter  may 
be  removed. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

PASTEURIZATION    AS   APPLIED   TO    BUTTER    MAKING. 

The  process  known  as  pasteurization  derives  its  name 
from  the  eminent  French  bacteriologist  Pasteur.  It  con- 
sists in  heating  and  cooling  in  a  manner  which  will  de- 
stroy the  vegetative  or  actively  growing  bacteria.  Milk 
or  cream  is  also  considered  pasteurized  when  only  the 
bulk  of  the  vegetative  bacteria  is  destroyed. 

Beginning  of  Cream  Pasteurization.  About  twenty 
years  ago  Storch,  the  noted  Danish  scientist,  succeeded 
in  isolating  from  milk  the  bacteria  that  are  needed  in 
successfully  ripening  cream.  Cultures  of  these  bacteria 
were  prepared  and  propagated  in  his  laboratory  and 
placed  upon  the  market  for  cream  ripening.  It  became 
evident  to  Storch,  however,  that  the  best  results  could 
not  be  expected  when  these  cultures  were  added  to  cream 
that  was  already  teeming  with  various  species  of  bacteria. 
This  led  him  to  the  idea  of  preparing  a  clean  field  for 
his  cultures  by  destroying  the  germs  that  already  existed 
in  the  cream  by  pasteurizing  it.  After  this  treatment  the 
cream  was  inoculated  with  the  desirable  germs  that  he  had 
isolated  and  propagated  for  this  purpose.  The  result  of 
this  practice  was  that  it  became  possible  to  produce  butter 
which  not  only  possessed  a  very  fine  flavor  but  which  was 
characterized  by  its  extreme  uniformity  and  good  keeping 
quality. 

Storch  soon  succeeded  in  introducing  this  method  of 
butter  making  into  Danish  creameries  which  has  done 
10  145 


146  CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 

much  toward  making  Denmark  the  most  noted  butter- 
producing  country  in  the  world.  Practically  all  butter 
produced  in  that  country  at  the  present  time  is  made 
from  pasteurized  cream. 

Pasteurized  Butter  in  America.  The  growth  of  the 
system  of  pasteurized  butter  making  has  been  slow  in 
America  up  to  within  recent  years.  That  pasteurized 
butter  possesses  merits  over  unpasteurized  has,  however, 
long  since  been  demonstrated  by  American  agricultural 
colleges  and  private  investigators.  It  remained,  never- 
theless, for  our  practical  butter  makers  to  place  the 
merits  of  this  system  beyond  a  possible  doubt.  During 
the  past  two  years  most  of  the  important  prizes  awarded 
to  butter  makers  have  gone  to  makers  of  pasteurized 
butter.  Many  of  the  leading  and  champion  butter  makers 
of  the  United  States,  are  the  firmest  advocates  of  pasteui 
ization.  Creameries  all  over  the  country  are  now  turn- 
ing their  attention  to  pasteurization  and  the  general 
adoption  of  the  system  in  America  can  only  be  a  matter 
of  time.  Indeed  a  large  percentage  of  the  creameries  in- 
cluding some  of  the  largest  in  the  world,  are  now  making 
butter  exclusively  from  pasteurized  cream. 

Why  We  Should  Pasteurize.  It  must  not  be  for- 
gotten that  the  standard  of  American  butter  is  becom- 
ing higher  year  after  year.  Methods  which  only  six  years 
ago  produced  a  butter  that  fairly  suited  the  general 
market,  are  now  obsolete  and  unsatisfactory.  In  il- 
lustration of  this  may  be  cited  the  practice  of  using  butter- 
milk starters,  or  the  use  of  no  starters  at  all,  in  creamery 
practice.  The  author  has  closely  watched  the  careers  of 
several  young  men  who,  only  a  few  years  ago,  had  met 
with  a  fair  degree  of  success  in  ripening  cream  with  but- 


PASTEURIZATION  OF  CREAM  147 

termilk  starters,  but  whose  persistence  in  adhering  to  old 
methods  has  driven  them  out  of  the  profession  of  butter 
making. 

The  rational  use  of  starters  has  done  much  to  raise 
the  general  standard  of  butter  in  America.  But  the  finest 
starters  added  to  cream  already  teeming  with  many  species 
of  good  and  bad  bacteria,  can  not  produce  the  best  re- 
sults. It  is  obvious  that  the  best  results  with  good  starters 
are  possible  only  when  the  bacteria  in  the  cream  are  first 
destroyed  by  pasteurization  so  that  the  good  germs  intro- 
duced by  the  starter  may  have  a  clean  field  for  develop- 
ment. 

If  nothing  but  good  cream  and  milk  were  delivered 
at  our  creameries  pasteurization  could  hold  no  place 
in  our  system  of  butter  making,  for  such  milk  could 
not  be  improved  by  this  process.  But  we  can  not  hope, 
for  many  years  at  least,  to  have  all  milk  arrive  at  the 
creameries  in  good,  clean  condition,  though  of  course 
great  possibilities  remain  for  improvement  in  this  direc- 
tion. Some  milk  will  persist  in  coming  to  the  cream- 
ery too  good  to  reject  and  too  poor  to  make  the  best  qual- 
ity of  butter. 

Then,  too,  with  the  advent  of  the  hand  separator  system 
in  creamery  butter  making,  pasteurization  has  become 
more  imperative  than  ever  before.  Where  cream  of  vary- 
ing ages  and  acidity  is  received  it  is  more  difficult  to 
secure  uniformity  and  good  keeping  quality  in  butter  than 
is  the  case  where  the  milk  is  daily  delivered  to  the  cream- 
ery. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  general  recognition  of  the  merits 
of  pasteurization  will  soon  be  followed  by  the  adoption 
of  this  method  of  butter  making  in  all  of  our  creameries. 
We  need  to  produce  a  butter  of  better  keeping  quality  and 


148  CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 

of  greater  uniformity,  two  qualities  which  American  but- 
ter notably  lacks. 

Methods  of  Making  Pasteurized  Butter.  Pasteur- 
ized butter  may  be  made  by  pasteurizing  either  the  milk 
or  the  cream.  The  latter  method  is  the  one  generally  em- 
ployed at  the  present  time. 

The  machines  used  for  pasteurizing  are  of  two  kinds : 

i.  Discontinuous  pasteurizers  used  for  pasteurizing 
small  quantities  of  milk  or  cream,  in  which  the  heating 
lasts  from  15  to  30  minutes,  according  as  the  tempera- 
ture is  high  or  low.  2.  Continuous  pasteurizers  in  which 
a  constant  stream  of  cream  or  milk  flows  through  the 
machine  and  is  heated  only  during  its  few  moments  pas- 
sage from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the  pasteurizer. 

The  heating  in  both  classes  of  machines  is  done  in  a 
jacket  surrounding  the  milk  or  cream  in  which  either 
live  steam  or  hot  water  is  used.  The  latter  is  to  be 
preferred,  because  hot  water  does  not  scorch  as  much  as 
live  steam. 

In  purchasing  a  pasteurizer  the  following  points  should 
be  observed :  first,  the  ease  with  which  the  machine  can 
be  cleaned;  second,  the  capacity,  which  should  be  large 
enough  to  avoid  crowding;  third,  the  ease  and  uniformity 
with  which  the  cream  or  milk  can  be  heated ;  fourth  the 
durability  of  the  machine. 

It  is  a  great  mistake  to  buy  a  machine  of  too  small 
capacity.  Such  a  machine  must  be  fed  so  heavily  as  to 
necessitate  a  thick  layer  of  milk  or  cream  over  the  heating 
surface  which  can  not  result  in  uniform  heating. 

Cream  Pasteurization  ^  For  creameries  the  most 
popular  as  well  as  the  most  practical  method  of  making 
pasteurized  butter  consists  in  heating  cream  from  165° 


PASTEURIZATION  OF  CREAM 


149 


to  185°  F.  in  a  continuous  pasteurizer  and  then  rapidly 
cooling  it  to  65°  F.  By  this  treatment  the  great  bulk  of 
bacteria  is  destroyed. 


SPRING  WATCH 
SUPPLY 


ICE  WATER 
SUPPLY 


Fig.  32.— Tubular  cooler. 

A  cooler  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  32  is  desirable  with 
pasteurizers  not  provided  with  cooling  attachments.  A 
loose  tin  cover  over  the  cooler  prevents  contamination  of 
the  cream  with  dust,  flies  and  bacteria  while  it  is  flow- 
ing over  the  cooler. 

The  Chief  Advantages  of  pasteurizing  cream  are  as 
follows : 


1.  Improves  the  flavor  of  butter. 

2.  Leads  to  greater  uniformity. 


150  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

3.  Increases  the  keeping  quality. 

4.  Eliminates  undesirable  odors. 

5.  Renders  butter  safe  from  disease  germs. 

Milk  and  cream  always  contain  bad  flavor  producing 
bacteria  in  varying  quantities.  The  destruction  of  these 
by  the  pasteurizing  process  and  their  subsequent  replace- 
ment by  good  flavor  producing  bacteria,  must  afford  suffi- 
cient proof  for  the  first  three  advantages  above  mentioned. 

The  keeping  quality  of  the  butter  made  from  pasteurized 
cream  is  so  much  superior  to  that  from  the  unpasteurized, 
that  the  author  feels  that  the  increased  keeping  quality 
alone  should  warrant  the  general  introduction  of  pasteuri- 
zation in  our  system  of  butter  making. 

Experience  has  also  shown  that  there  is  nothing  so 
effective  in  eliminating  bad  odors  from  milk  and  cream 
as  the  high  temperatures  employed  in  pasteurizing.  High 
temperatures  in  themselves  tend  to  expel  from  milk  or 
cream  undesirable  odors  so  frequently  present,  especially 
during  the  weedy  season.  When  the  high  temperature 
is  assisted  by  the  whirling  motion  to  which  milk  and  cream 
are  subjected  in  the  pasteurizer,  or  possibly  the  separator, 
the  power  of  eliminating  bad  odors  is  materially  increased. 

In  regard  to  the  advantage  of  pasteurizing  cream  to 
safeguard  butter  against  disease  germs,  it  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  when  milk  is  infected  with  this  class  of 
organisms  the  butter  from  the  same  will  also  be  infected. 
Thus  it  has  been  shown  that  not  only  will  butter  contain 
tubercle  bacilli  when  made  from  milk  containing  them, 
but  the  bacilli  retain  their  virulence  in  butter  for  a  con- 
siderable period  of  time. 

The  danger  from  tubercle  bacilli  has  recently  caused 
the  Chicago  board  of  health  to  pass  an  ordinance  ex- 


PASTEURIZATION  OF  CREAM  151 

eluding  from  the  city  all  butter  which  has  not  been  safe- 
guarded against  these  organisms,  either  by  pasteurizing 
the  cream  or  by  applying  the  tuberculin  test  to  herds  from 
which  the  butter  is  obtained,  and  excluding  all  reacting 
animals. 

Certainly  if  it  is  necessary  to  pasteurize  skimmilk  to 
prevent  the  spread  of  tuberculosis  among  live  stock,  it 
should  be  all  the  more  imperative  to  pasteurize  the  cream 
to  prevent  the  spread  of  tuberculosis  in  the  human  family 
through  infected  butter. 

As  in  the  case  of  cream  ripeners,  there  are  a  number 
of  different  makes  of  cream  pasteurizers  upon  the  market 
which  are  giving  good  satisfaction.  Pasteurization  will 
not  prove  successful  with  any  pasteurizer  unless  the  cream 
is  heated  to  the  proper  temperature  and  rapidly  cooled 
to  at  least  65°  F.  immediately  after  it  leaves  the  pasteur- 
izer. 

Pasteurization  of  Gathered  Cream.  There  is  proba- 
bly no  problem  along  pasteurizing  lines  of  greater  impor- 
tance at  present  than  the  pasteurization  of  hand  separator 
or  gathered  cream.  Heretofore  the  apparent  difficulty  in 
the  way  of  pasteurizing  this  cream  has  been  the  high 
degree, of  acidity  which  it  often  reaches  before  delivery 
to  the  creamery.  Experiments  and  practical  creamery 
results  show  beyond  doubt  that  sour  cream  containing  not 
less  than  30%  fat  can  be  successfully  pasteurized.  Much 
greater  care  is  necessary  when  the  fat  content  falls  below 
30%  and  buttermakers  should  insist  upon  making  30% 
the  minimum,  which  can  easily  be  done  with  hand  separa- 
tors. 

The  chief  danger  in  pasteurizing  thin  sour  cream  is  the 
coagulation  of  the  casein  and  the  consequent  greater  loss 


152  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

of  fat  in  the  buttermilk.  High  temperatures  are  less  liable 
to  produce  this  result  than  relatively  low.  Cream  of  this 
kind  should  be  pasteurized  at  not  lower  than  185°  F. 
The  coagulation  of  the  casein  interferes  with  the  cooling 
and  straining  of  the  cream,  and  it  has  been  shown  that 
the  high  loss  of  fat  in  the  buttermilk  is  at  least  partly 
due  to  the  fat  globules  which  are  enclosed  in  the  curd 
particles. 

In  general,  pasteurized  cream  must  be  churned  at  a 
lower  temperature  than  unpasteurized  to  get  exhaustive 
churnings.  Where  cream  has  been  heated  it  is  also  neces- 
sary to  keep  it  at  a  low  temperature  longer  before  churn- 
ing than  unheated  cream,  because  of  the  slowness  with 
which  the  fat  becomes .  thoroughly  chilled. 

The  acidity  of  cream  is  somewhat  diminished  by  the 
pasteurizing  process.  This  process  also  diminishes  the 
heavy  consistency  of  sour  cream,  'which  it  does  not  seem 
to  recover  even  when  ripened  with  a  heavy  starter.  This, 
however,  has  no  effect  on  the  quality  of  butter. 

To  obtain  good  results  from  pasteurizing  sour  cream  it 
is  absolutely  essential  to  treat  the  pasteurized  product  with 
a  heavy  starter  even  if  the  latter  shows  an  acidity  of 
0.6%  or  more. 

Cost  of  Pasteurizing  Cream.  According  to  Danish 
experiments  the  cost  of  pasteurizing  cream  is  approxi- 
mately .1  cent  per  pound  of  butter.  These  results  seem 
to  be  confirmed  by  the  best  practical  butter  makers  in 
this  country  who  have  pasteurized  for  several  years. 

The  cost  of  pasteurizing  must,  however,  always  depend 
largely  upon  the  manner  in  which  the  pasteurizing  proc- 
ess is  carried  out.  For  example,  if  the  water  used  for 
cooling  the  cream  is  pumped  into  the  water  supply  tank 


PASTEURIZATION  OF  CREAM  153 

for  the  boiler,  a  large  portion  of  the  heat  used  for  pas- 
teurizing- is  recovered.  Further,  if  the  proper  coolers  are 
used,  ordinary  well  water  will  cool  the  cream  to  the 
ripening  temperature  without  the  use  of  ice.  Some  have 
also  found  it  practical  to  use  the  exhaust  steam  from  the 
engine  for  pasteurizing  cream. 

The  care  and  cleaning  of  the  pasteurizer  and  cooler 
will,  of  course,  entail  extra  labor,  but  the  labor  thus  in- 
volved will  not  materially  add  to  the  expense  of  pasteuriz- 
ing. 


CHAPTER   XVI. 

CONTROL  OF  WATER  IN  BUTTER. 

Importance  of  Water  Control.  First  of  all  it  is 
necessary  to  know  how  to  control  the  water  in  butter  in 
order  to  keep  within  the  limits  of  the  law  which  classes 
butter  as  adulterated  when  it  contains  16%  or  more  of 
water.  That  there  is  danger  of  exceeding  this  limit  is 
evinced  by  the  number  of  penalties  which  buttermakers 
have  been  obliged  to  pay  in  recent  years. 

There  is  also  a  great  deal  of  butter  on  the  market  which 
is  unnecessarily  low  in  water  content.  This  means  a 
reduced  yield  in  butter,  and  consequently  places  the  manu- 
facturers of  such  butter  at  a  disadvantage  with  com- 
petitors who  are  obtaining  normal  yields. 

Finally  it  is  necessary  to  understand  the  means  of  con- 
trolling water  in  order  that  uniformity  may  be  secured 
with  respect  to  this  constituent  of  butter. 

The  Buttermaker's  Limit.  While  16%  water  is 
legally  approachable,  the  buttermaker,  to  be  on  the  safe 
side,  should  make  15%  his  limit.  To  allow  one  per  cent, 
latitude  for  possible  inaccuracies  in  making  water  deter- 
minations is  manifestly  the  least  that  can  possibly  be 
allowed.  Buttermakers  who  are  striving  to  run  the  water 
content  up  to  within  one-half  or  one-quarter  per  cent,  of 
the  legal  limit  are  constantly  in  danger  of  falling  into 
the  clutches  of  the  law. 

FACTORS  THAT  CONTROL  THE  WATER  CONTENT  OF  BUTTER. 

Temperature.  This  is  the  main  factor  in  the  control 
of  moisture  in  butter.  A  temperature  which  keeps  the 

154 


CONTROL  OP  WATER  IN  BUTTER  155 

butterfat  in  a  soft,  plastic  condition  during  churning  and 
working  favors  the  retention  of  water  in  butter.  The 
temperature,  however,  must  never  be  so  high  as  to  injure 
the  texture  of  the  butter  or  to  cause  an  undue  loss  of 
fat  in  the  buttermilk. 

Size  of  Granules.  As  a  rule,  the  larger  the  butter 
granules  the  more  water  will  be  retained  in  the  butter. 
The  size  of  the  granules  should  be  limited  to  that  of 
a  pea,  because  larger  granules  will  make  it  difficult  to 
properly  wash  the  butter  and  distribute  the  salt. 

Amount  of  Working.  When  butter  is  worked  in  the 
presence  of  little  moisture,  the  water  content  decreases 
with  the  amount  of  working.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has 
been  shown  that  when  butter  is  worked  with  considerable 
water  present  in  the  churn,  the  water  content  may  be 
actually  increased  by  continued  working.  Overworking 
must  be  carefully  avoided. 

Time  Between  Workings.  The  shorter  the  time  be- 
tween workings  the  higher  the  water  content.  The  high- 
est water  content  is  secured  by  working  butter  only  once. 

Amount  of  Salt.  It  has  long  been  known  that  salt 
expels  moisture  from  butter.  The  more  salt  used,  there- 
fore, the  smaller  the  amount  of  water  retained  in  the 
butter. 

Richness  of  Cream.  Rich  cream  which  churns  into 
flaky,  irregular  granules,  tends  to  increase  the  water  con- 
tent of  butter. 

Amount  of  Cream  in  Churn.  Large  churnings  are 
more  conducive  to  high  water  content  than  small. 

Dry  and  Wet  Salt.  The  moister  the  salt  when  ap- 
plied to  the  butter  the  less  water  it  will  expel. 

Composition  of  Butterfat.     This  may  be  considered 


156  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

as  exerting  an  indirect  influence  upon  the  water  content 
of  butter.  Feeds,  breeds,  and  period  of  lactation  for  ex- 
ample change  the  proportion  of  soft  and  hard  fats  in 
butterfat  and  therefore  have  an  influence  upon  the  churn- 
ing temperature  of  cream.  'Butter  from  stable-fed  cows 
receiving  feeds  like  cottonseed  meal,  which  produces  a 
hard  butterfat,  may  be  perfectly  normal  in  water  content, 
while  butter  from  the  same  cows  feeding  upon  pasture 
(yielding  a  relatively  soft  butterfat)  may  be  over- 
loaded with  water,  if  the  same  churning  and  working 
temperature  is  employed  in  both  cases. 

The  author  recalls  several  cases  where  buttermakers 
have  exceeded  the  legal  limit  for  water  in  butter.  These 
occurred  in  the  spring  while  the  cows  were  being  changed 
from  dry  feed  to  pasture.  It  is  possible  that  the  butter- 
makers  in  these  instances  failed  to  change  the  churning 
temperature  to  meet  the  changed  conditions  as  to  feed. 
The  lactation  period  may  also  have  exerted  some  influence 
in  these  cases,  since  it  is  possible  that  many  of  the  cows 
freshened  during  the  transition  period  from  dry  feed  to 
pasture.  (See  discussion  under  "insoluble  fats,"  page 

15.) 

DETERMINATION  OF  WATER  IN  BUTTER. 

One  of  the  most  important  points  in  testing  butter  for 
moisture  is  to  get  a  sample  that  will  accurately  represent 
the  whole  lot  of  butter  to  be  tested.  Such  a  sample 
is  best  secured  by  making  a  composite  sample,  the  com- 
ponents being  taken  from  various  parts  of  the  tub  or 
churn. 

Sampling  Tub  Butter.-  Run  the  trier  diagonally 
through  the  tub  and  collect  butter  from  different  points 


CONTROL  OP  WATER  IN  BUTTER  157 

of  the  plug.  Put  the  composite  sample  thus  collected  at 
once  into  a  tightly  covered  glass  jar,  and  keep  it  there  until 
ready  for  testing. 

Sampling  Butter  from  the  Churn.  Take  samples 
from  as  many  points  of  the  churn  as  possible,  making 
sure  to  get  some  from  the  ends  as  well  as  the  middle 
portion  of  the  churn.  The  more  points  from  which  the 
sample  is  taken  the  more  accurate  the  results.  •  As  in 
sampling  tub  butter,  the  composite  sample  is  placed  at 
once  into  an  air-tight  glass  jar  where  it  is  kept  until 
ready  for  testing. 

Preparing  the  Composite  Sample  for  Testing. 
In  order  to  insure  a  thorough  mixing  of  the  sample,  it 
should  be  melted  by  placing  the  sample  jar  in  water  at 
a  temperature  slightly  higher  than  the  melting  point  of 
the  butter.  As  soon  as  melted,  the  butter  is  re-solidified 
by  running  cold  water  over  the  jar.  The  sample,  however, 
must  be  thoroughly  shaken  during  the  solidifying  process 
to  insure  an  even  distribution  of  moisture. 

Some  have  secured  satisfactory  results  by  simply  warm- 
ing the  butter  (at  about  100°  F.)  until  it  assumes  a 
creamy  consistency  and  then  thoroughly  mixing  the  same 
just  before  weighing. 

Weighing  the  Sample.  In  weighing  the  butter,  first 
weigh  the  sample  dish,  making  sure  that  the  dish  is  clean 
and  dry.  Next  place  about  ten  grams  of  butter  in  the 
dish  and  weigh  again.  The  difference  between  the  two 
weighings  represents  the  weight  of  butter. 

To  secure  accurate  weighings,  use  scales  sensitive  to 
at  least  one  centigram  and  allow  the  dishes,  both  with 
and  without  the  butter,  to  cool  to  about  100°  F.  before 
weighing.  While  it  is  necessary  to  cool  the  sample,  a 


158 


CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 


Fig.  33. — Scales  for  moisture  determin- 
ation in  butter. 


long  delay  in  weighing,  on  the  other  hand,  is  to  be  avoided 
on  account  of  the  danger  of  the  samples  absorbing  mois- 
ture. Draughts  must  also  be  avoided  in  weighing.  Fur- 
thermore, small  samples  and  dishes  are  more  conducive 

to  accuracy  in  weighing 
than  large  ones.  This  is 
so  because  the  ordinary 
scales  used  in  weighing 
butter  samples  are  rather 
light  in  construction  and 
hence  not  adapted  to 
heavy  weighing.  For 
this  reason  a  ten- gram 
sample  will  give  better 
results  than  a  fifty-gram 
sample. 

Weighing  Samples  Direct.  M.  Michels,  formerly  in 
charge  of  the  Wisconsin  Butter  and  Cheese  scoring  ex- 
hibitions, has  found  that  where  there  is  no  loose  water  in 
butter  satisfactory  results  can  be  secured  by  transferring 
the  butter  direct  from  the  sampler  to  the  sample  dish. 

Duplicate  Tests.  Results  from  a  single  moisture  de- 
termination can  not  be  positively  relied  upon  as  being 
correct.  In  all  important  testing  work  duplicate  tests 
should  be  made.  Where  the  duplicates  correspond  closely 
the  average  of  the  two  tests  may  be  considered  correct. 
Calculating  the  Per  Cent,  of  Water.  Where  exactly 
ten  grams  of  butter  are  used,  multiply  the  loss  in  weight 
during  drying  by  10  to  get  the  per  cent,  of  water.  Ex- 
ample: Weight  of  butter  before  drying  is  10  grams; 
weight  after  drying  is  8.5  grams;  the  difference,  1.5, 
multiplied  by  10  equals  15  per  cent,  of  moisture. 

When  somewhat  more  or  less  butter  is  weighed  out, 


CONTROL  OP  WATER  IN  BUTTER  159 

use  the  following  rule   for  calculating  the  per  cent,   of 
water : 

Rule :  Multiply  the  loss  in  weight  during  drying  by 
100  and  divide  the  result  by  the  weight  of  butter  used. 
Example :  weight  of  butter  before  drying  is  10.45  grams ; 
weight  after  drying  is  8.90  grams.  The  difference  1.55, 
multiplied  by  100  and  divided  by  10.45  equals  14.83  equals 
per  cent,  of  water. 

MOISTURE  TESTS. 

There  are  a  number  of  methods  in  use  for  determining 
the  water  content  of  butter,  a  few  of  which  will  be 
described  here. 

The  Eclipse  Method.  This  consists  of  a  strong, 
double-walled  casting  with  a  depression  into  which  an 
aluminum  beaker  fits.  The  casting  is  attached  to  a  steam 
pipe  which  allows  steam  under  pressure  to  pass  between 
its  walls.  The  greater  the  steam  pressure  the  higher  the 
evaporating  temperature  and  hence  the  shorter  the  time 
required  to  evaporate. 

About  ten  grams  of  butter  are  placed  in  the  aluminum 
beaker  and  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  show  a  light  brown 
color  the  evaporation  as  a  rule  is  complete.  With  the 
steam  pressure  ordinarily  carried  in  creameries  (about 
50  Ibs.)  the  evaporation  is  complete  in  about  fifteen 
minutes. 

To  make  sure  that  all  the  moisture  has  been  evaporated, 
re-heat  and  re-weigh  the  sample.  If  the  weight  after 
the  first  heating  is  the  same  as  that  after  the  second, 
it  is  proof  that  the  first  heating  wns  sufficient. 

The  Eclipse  method  especially,  commends  itself  for  its 
simplicity. 


160  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

The  Richmond  Method.  With  this  method  about  ten 
grams  of  butter  are  placed  in  a  porcelain  dish  which  is 
heated  over  an  alcohol  (or  other)  flame.  The  butter 
must  be  constantly  stirred  during  the  heating  and  care 
must  be  taken  to  so  regulate  the  flame  as  to  avoid  sput- 
tering. The  evaporation  can  usually  be  completed  in 
about  three  minutes.  This  method  commends  itself  espe- 
cially for  the  rapidity  with  which  the  test  can  be  made. 

The  Wisconsin  Method.  This  consists  of  a  square, 
double-walled,  cast-iron  oven  heated  with  steam  under 
pressure.  The  steam  circulates  between  the  walls.  About 
ten  grams  of  butter  are  weighed  in  flat  bottom  aluminum 
dishes  which  are  placed  inside  of  the  oven.  At  ordi- 
nary steam  pressure  (about  50  pounds)  the  evaporation 
is  usually  completed  in  thirty  minutes.  The  sample 
should  always  be  re-heated  and  re-weighed  to  make  sure 
that  the  first  heating  was  sufficient.  This  method  com- 
mends itself  especially  where  a  large  number  of  samples 
are  to  be  tested,  since  the  oven  easily  holds  from  nine 
to  sixteen  dishes,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  dishes. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

SAMPLING,     WEIGHING     AND    TESTING     GATHERED    CREAM. 
CREAM    SAMPLING  AND   SAMPLERS. 

Taking  an  Aliquot  Sample.  This  means  that  the 
amount  of  cream  taken  for  the  composite  test  jar,  must 
always  be  proportional  to  the  amount  of  cream  furnished. 
If  cream  always  had  the  same  richness,  or  if  always  the 
same  amount  were  furnished,  the  dipper  method  of 
sampling  would  give  satisfactory  results,  provided  the 
cream  was  thoroughly  mixed  before  sampling.  But  since 
we  rarely  find  two  batches  of  cream  alike,  either  in  quan- 
tity or  quality,  the  necessity  of  taking  an  aliquot  sample 
becomes  apparent.  This  may  be  made  perfectly  plain  by 
the  following  illustration : 

Feb.  i  patron  X  furnishes  50  Ibs.  of  20%  cream. 
Feb.  2  patron  X  furnishes  30  Ibs.  of  30%  cream. 
Feb.  3  patron  X  furnishes  20  Ibs.  of  40%  cream. 

Dividing  the  total  butterfat  furnished  during  the  three 
days  by  the  total  pounds  of  cream  we  get  27,  which  repre- 
sents the  correct  average  test.  This  test  would  be  secured 
by  taking  aliquot  samples.  The  test  by  the  dipper  method 
would  equal  the  sum  of  the  three  tests  divided  by  three. 
Thus  20+30+40-^-3^=30,  the  average  test  by  the  dipper 
method,  differing  from  the  correct  average  test  by  3%. 
By  the  dipper  method  the  same  amount  of  cream  is  taken 
for  a  sample,  regardless  of  the  amount  of  cream  fur- 
nished. 

11  161 


162 


CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 


Cream  Samplers.  While  an  aliquot  sample  is  neces- 
sary only  where  composite  samples  are  made,  samplers 
taking  an  aliquot  sample,  like  the  Scovell,  McKay  and 
Michels,  have  the  further  advantage  of  securing  a  more 
accurate  sample  when  the  cream  is  not  thoroughly  mixed. 
These  samplers  take  a  uniform  sample  from  the  top  to 
the  bottom  of  the  cream  in  the  can.  The  "milk  thief," 
which  also  takes  an  aliquot  sample,  does  not  take  as  satis- 
factory a  sample  when  the  cream  is  not  thoroughly  mixed. 


Fig.  34. — Michels  sampler. 


Fig.  35.— McKay  sampler. 


McKay  Sampler.  This  consists  of  two  tubes,  one  of 
v:l:ich  slides  into  the  other.  One  side  of-  each  tube  is 
open  so  that  the  cream  enters  along  the  entire  side  of  the 


GATHERED  CREAM  163 

sampler.  When  the  sampler  is  filled  the  tubes  are  turned 
with  the  openings  or  slots  at  right  angles  to  each  other, 
thus  closing  the  sampler  and  permitting  the  withdrawal 
of  the  sample  of  cream.  See  Fig.  35. 

Michels  Sampler.  This  consists  of  a  modified  Scovell 
sampler  heated  in  a  tin  heater  as  shown  in  Fig.  34. 

A  is  a  steam  and  hot  water  reservoir  with  an  inlet  at 
B.  The  steam  and  hot  water  discharge  through  a  circle 
of  small  openings  at  D.  The  condensed  steam  finds  exit 
at  C.  £  is  a  Scovell  sampler  provided  with  a  handle,  G, 
and  a  circular  piece  of  heavy  tin,  K,  which  holds  the 
sampler  in  position  and  prevents  the  escape  of  steam.  F 
is  a  strong  wire  attached  to  the  cap  which  opens  and 
closes  the  sampler.  The  wire  ends  at  the  top  in  a  right 
angle  turn,  H,  which  rests  across  the  top  of  the  sampler 
when  the  latter  is  open.  The  construction  of  the  heater 
prevents  the  entrance  of  water  into  the  sampler  and  neces- 
sitates the  use  of  but  a  very  small  amount  of  steam,  which 
'is  admitted  through  the  steam  hose,  7.  The  latter  con- 
nects with  the  pipe,  /,  leading  to  the  boiler. 

When  ready  to  sample,  remove  the  sampler  from  the 
heater,  plunge  at  once  to  the  bottom  of  the  can  of  cream 
to  be  sampled,  and  remove  quickly.  While  holding  the 
composite  sample  jar  in  the  left  hand,  discharge  the  con- 
tents of  the  sampler  into  it  by  pressing  down  on  H  with 
the  thumb  of  the  hand  holding  the  sampler.  Owing  to 
the  heated  condition  of  the  sampler,  the  cream  discharges 
instantly  and,  what  is  equally  important,  all  of  it  dis- 
charges. 

The  sampler  is  accurate,  quick,  convenient  and  simple, 
and  makes  the  sampling  of  heavy,  rich  cream,  or  thick, 
sour  cream,  no  more  difficult  than  that  of  milk. 


164  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

The  McKay  sampler  can  also  be  heated  in  the  tin  heater 
and  is  probably  to  be  preferred  to  the  modified  Scovell 
sample  for  sampling  extremely  cold  or  extremely  rich 
cream. 

Scovell  Sampler  and  Milk  Thief.  These  samplers 
are  illustrated  and  described  on  page  52. 

SAMPLING    AND    WEIGHING    AT    THE    FARM. 

In  addition  to  the  regular  supply  of  empty,  sterile 
cream  cans,  the  cream  gatherer  should  be  provided  with 
a  pair  of  scales,  a  cream  pail,  tubes  or  jars  for  carrying 
the  cream  samples,  a  cream  stirrer,  and  a  sampling  tube 
or  a  small  sample  dipper.  The  dipper  may  be  used  when 
the  samples  are  tested  after  each  delivery.  Where  com- 
posite samples  are  taken  the  sampling  tube  must  be  used 
owing  to  the  daily  variation  in  the  quantity  and  quality 
of  cream. 

Thoroughly  mix  the  cream  before  taking  the  sample. 
This  is  best  accomplished  by  pouring  it  several  times  from 
one  vessel  to  another.  If  the  cream  is  lumpy,  the  lumps 
should  be  broken  up  with  the  stirrer.  Immediately  after 
mixing  the  cream,  a  sample  is  taken  and  placed  in  the 
patron's  sample  tube  or  jar.  The  receptacle  should  be 
plainly  numbered  and  provided  with  a  tight-fitting  cover. 
The  cream  is  then  weighed  and  poured  into  the  regular 
supply  cans. 

The  samples  should  be  carefully  placed  in  a  carrying 
case  where  they  are  protected  from  breakage  and  outside 
temperatures.  Promptly  on  arrival  at  the  creamery  the 
samples  are  emptied  into  their  respective  composite  sample 
jars,  if  the  composite  method  of  testing  is  followed. 

Where  the  cream  is  too  thick  for  satisfactory  sampling 


GATHERED  CREAM  165 

with  the  sampling  tubes,  a  proportionate  amount  of  cream 
may  be  measured  by  putting  into  a  graduated  tube,  with 
a  dipper,  say  one  c.c.  of  cream  for  every  pound  of  cream 
furnished. 


SAMPLING  AND   WEIGHING  AT  THE  CREAMERY. 

There  are  several  methods  of  weighing  and  sampling 
in  vogue  at  the  present  time.  One  is  to  sample  and 
weigh  the  cream  in  the  cans  in  which  it  is  delivered.  In 
this  case  the  sample  is  taken  with  a  dipper  or  sampling 
tube  after  the  cream  has  been  thoroughly  mixed  with  a 
stirrer.  The  cream  is  then  weighed  and  emptied  directly 
into  the  cream  vat  or  into  a  receiving  can.  From  the 
latter  it  may  be  conducted  into  the  cream  vat  by  gravity 
or  by  means  of  a  pump.  A  better  method  of  handling  the 
cream  is  to  pour  it  from  one  can  to  another  several  times 
before  sampling.  This  insures  better  mixing  than  is  pos- 
sible with  the  stirrer  alone.  But  even  where  the  cream 
is  poured,  the  stirrer  may  be  of  value  in  supplementing 
the  mixing,  especially  in  case  the  cream  is  lumpy.  Weigh 
the  cream  in  the  delivery  can  or  the  receiving  can  and 
run  it  by  gravity  into  the  cream  vat. 

In  case  composite  samples  are  made,  an  aliquot  portion 
of  cream  must  be  taken  by  means  of  one  of  the  sampling 
tubes.  And  where  the  cream  is  not  thoroughly  mixed  be- 
fore sampling,  the  Scovell,  McKay,  or  Michels  sampler 
is  preferred. 

All  cream  samplers  except  the  Michels  must  be  rinsed 
in  hot  water  after  each  sampling.  This  is  especially  im- 
portant when  sampling  heavy  cream. 

Where  the  cream  is  weighed  in  the  cans,  the  weight  of 
the  empty  can  should  be  permanently  marked  upon  it. 


166  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

TESTING  CREAM. 

Frequency  of  Testing.  Where  the  cream. is  delivered 
to  the  creamery  in  good  condition,  composite  samples  may 
be  taken  in  the  same  manner  as  with  milk.  Usually,  how- 
ever, where  a  great  deal  of  hand  separator  cream  is 
handled,  some  of  it  is  delivered  in  too  bad  condition  for 
composite  sampling.  In  this  case  it  becomes  necessary  to 
test  the  cream  as  often  as  it  is  delivered. 

At  present  in  many  of  the  larger  and  in  some  of  the 
smaller  creameries,  a  test  is  made  of  each  delivery  of 
cream.  This  practice  insures  the  most  satisfactory  tests, 
but  requires  more  work  than  where  composite  samples 
are  taken.  On  this  account  a  great  deal  of  cream  is  still 
tested  by  the  latter  method. 

Where  composite  samples  are  made,  these  are  preferably 
tested  once  a  week  and  should  never  be  tested  less  than 
twice  a  month.  See  chapter  on  "Composite  Sampling." 

Necessity  of  Weighing  Cream.  Accurate  tests  of 
cream  can  not  be  secured  by  measuring  the  sample  into 
the  bottle  as  is  done  in  the  case  of  milk.  *  The  reason  for 
this  is  that  the  weight  of  cream  varies  with  its  richness. 
The  richer  the  cream  the  less  it  weighs  per  unit  volume. 
This  is  illustrated  in  the  following  table  by  Farrington 
and  Woll: 


GATHERED  CREAM 


167 


Weight  of  fresh  separator  cream  delivered  by  a  17.6  c.c. 

pipette. 


Percent  of  fat 
in  cream. 

10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
50 


Specific  gravity 
(weighed.) 

1.023 
1.012 
1.008 
1.002 

.996 

.980 

.966 

.950 

.947 


Weight  of  cream 
in  grains. 

17.9 
17.7 
17.3 
17.2 
17.0 
16.4 
16.3 
16.2 
15.8 


These  figures  plainly  show  that  justice  can  not  be  done 
to  patrons  where  cream  is  sampled  with  a  17.6  c.c. 
pipette.  Cream  is  therefore  always  weighed  on  a  cream 
scales,  the  amount  necessary  for  a  full  sample  being 
eighteen  grams. 

Cream  Bottles  and  Their  Uses.      Numerous  styles  of 

cream  bottles   are    now 
upon  the  market.    They 
range  in  length  from  six 
to  nine  inches  with  necks 
graduated    from    30    to 
55%.        The    nine-inch 
bottles     are     graduated 
from  50  to  55%   and  re- 
quire special  testers    on 
account  of  their  unusual 
length.        These     long- 
Fig.  36.-Torsion  cream  scales.  necked  bottles  have  the 
advantage    of   permitting   the   use   of   a    full    sample   of 
cream  which  insures  a  more  accurate  reading  than  is  pos- 
sible where  only  half  a  sample  of  cream  is  put  in  an 


168 


CREAMERY   BUTTER   MAKING 


ordinary  cream   bottle,   or   where   shorter   wide-mouthed 
%  bottles  are  used. 


Fig.  37.— Cream  scales. 

A  cream  bottle  commonly  used  is  the  Winton  30% 
bottle,  shown  in  Fig.  3.  With  this  bottle  only 
half  a  sample  (9  grams)  of  rich  cream  can 
be  used.  To  the  half  sample  of  cream  a  scant 
half-measure  of  acid  is  added,  and  the  testing 
finished  in  the  usual  way.  What  is  better, 
however,  is  to  add  to  the  nine  grams  of  cream 
approximately  9  c.c.  of  water  and  then  use 
the  full  amount  of  acid.  Obviously  where  only 
half  a  sample  of  cream  is  used  in  the  ordinary 
botttle,  the  test  must  be  multiplied  by  2  to  get 
the  correct  reading. 

Lately,  a  small  bore  cream  bottle  (Fig.  38) 
has  been  placed  upon  the  market  in  which  only 
half  a  sample  of  cream  is  used,  but  which  gives 
a  reading  for  a  full  sample.     This  does  away 
Fig.  3&— Nine  with  multiplying  tests  by  2  when  only  half  a 

gram  cream 
bottle. 


GATHERED  CREAM  169 

sample  is  used,  and  reduces  the  error  in  reading  by  one- 
half.  The  small  bore  of  the  neck  also  lessens  any  error  in 
reading  the  test.  It  should  be  stated  that  the  bottle  is  too 
small  to  admit  of  adding  9  c.c.  of  water  and  the  full 
amount  of  acid.  Furthermore  the  bottles  used  by  the 
author  were  rather  difficult  to  read  owing  to  the  small- 
ness  of  the  figures  and  marks  upon  the  neck. 

Preparing  the  Sample.  Before  weighing  the  cream  on 
the  balance,  care  should  be  taken  to  thoroughly  mix  the 
sample  by  pouring  and  repouring  a  few  times.  Should 
the  samples  show  any  dried  or  churned  cream,  the  sample 
jars  must  be  placed  in  water  at  a  temperature  of  about 
110°  F.  until  the  lumps  of  cream  or  butter  have  melted. 
When  this  is  done  the  sample  for  the  test  bottle  must  be 
taken  instantly  after  mixing,  as  the  melted  fat  separates 
very  quickly.  In  general,  warming  the  sample  jars  some- 
what before  sampling  by  placing  them  in  warm  water 
will  facilitate  the  mixing  and  sampling  of  the  cream. 

Making  and  Reading  Cream  Tests.  The  different 
steps  in  testing  cream  are  essentially  the  same  as  in  testing 
milk.  However,  as  already  stated,  the  cream  must  be 
weighed  and  tested  in  a  special  bottle.  Furthermore, 
special  precautions  must  be  used  in  reading  the  test. 

It  is  well  known  that  reading  the  extremes  of  the  fat 
column  gives  too  high  a  reading.  This  error  is  due  to 
the  meniscus  at  the  top  of  the  fat  column,  the  size  of 
which  varies  with  the  width  of  the  neck.  Farrington 
and  Woll  recommend  reading  from  the  lowest  extremity 
of  the  fat  column  to  the  bottom  of  the  upper  meniscus. 
This  is  the  method  commonly  employed  in  reading  tests. 
Eckles  and  Wayman  recommend  removing  the  meniscus 
by  addine  a  small  quantity  of  amyl  alcohol  (colored  red) 


170  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

to  the  top  of  the  fat  column.  This  method  has  been 
carefully  tested  by  the  author  and  has  been  found  satis- 
factory. 

Farrington  suggests  adding  a  few  drops  of  fat-saturated 
alcohol  to  the  top  of  the  fat  as  a  means  of  removing  the 
meniscus.  Ordinary  alcohol  has  a  solvent  action  on  butter- 
fat,  hence  the  necessity  of  using  fat-saturated  alcohol. 

The  fat  readings  should  be  made  at  a  temperature  of 
140°  F. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

LOCATION   AND  CONSTRUCTION   OF  CREAMERIES. 

The  creamery  industry  has  had  a  marvelous  growth 
during  the  past  decade  and  at  no  time  in  its  history  has 
it  been  in!  a  more  healthy,  flourishing  condition  than 
it  is  at  the  present  time.  This  growth  has  been  the  result 
of  a  gradual  change  in  agricultural  methods,  necessitated 
chiefly  by  the  need  of  conserving  the  fertility  of  lands  now 
under  cultivation.  As  our  lands  become  older,  an  agri- 
cultural practice  that  will  have  for  one  of  its  objects  the 
preservation  and  restoration  of  soil  fertility,  must  grow 
more  and  more  imperative.  We  have,  therefore,  much 
assurance  that  the  creamery  industry  will  flourish  in  the 
future  as  it  has  in  the  past,  and  that  the  creamery  has 
come  to  stay  as  a  permanent  institution.  The  same  care 
and  attention  should  therefore  be  given  to  the  location 
and  construction  of  creameries  that  is  now  given  to  our 
schools,  churches,  and  other  institutions. 

Location  of  Creamery.  In  deciding  upon  the  location 
of  a  creamery,  we  should  carefully  consider  the  following 
points:  (i)  the  number  of  cows  in  the  community;  (2) 
the  slope  necessary  to  insure  good  drainage ;  (3)  the  center 
of  the  milk  producing  territory;  and  (4)  the  supply  of 
pure  water. 

(i.)  Before  building  a  creamery  we  must  first  ascer- 
tain the  number  of  cows  available  for  its  support.  There 
should  be  an  assurance  of  not  less  than  400  cows  in  a 
radius  of  five  miles  of  the  creamery  to  start  with.  Too 

171 


172  CREAMERY   BUTTER   MAKING 

frequently  creamery  "promoters"  are  the  cause  of  cream- 
ery failures  because  the  creamery  has  been  placed  in  a 
territory  containing  too  few  cows. 

(2.)  The  ground  upon  which  the  creamery  stands 
should  slope  at  least  one  foot  in  ten.  This  amount  of  slope 
is  necessary  for  two  reasons  :  (a)  to  secure  sufficient  drain- 
age, and  (b)  to  permit  the  construction  of  a  creamery 
with  an  ideal  interior  and  exterior  arrangement,  such  as 
will  do  away  with  extra  can  lifting,  and  extra  pumps  and 
piping. 

(3.)  Locations  far  removed  from  railroad  stations  are 
undesirable.  It  makes  transportation  to  and  from  the 
station  too  expensive.  Besides,  during  the  summer  the 
butter  is  liable  to  get  too  warm  before  it  reaches  a  refrig- 
erator car. 

(4.)  Pure  water  is  absolutely  indispensable  to  the  suc- 
cess of  a  creamery.  Experiments  have  abundantly  demon- 
strated that  butter  washed  with  impure  water  will  be 
inferior  in  flavor  and  particularly  poor  in  keeping  quality. 

Fireproof  Creamery.  The  best  and  most  permanent 
creameries  are  constructed  of  brick  or  hollow  concrete 
blocks.  They  are  the  most  sanitary  and  cheapest  in  the 
long  run.  The  original  cost  may  be  somewhat  greater 
than  that  of  a  frame  building  but  the  insurance  and  re- 
pairs are  considerable  less.  A  brick  or  concrete  block 
creamery  with  galvanized  iron  roof,  cement  floors,  and  the 
walls  partly  of  cement,  is  practically  fire  proof.  Fires 
occur  too  frequently  in  creameries  to  permit  their  con- 
struction without  regard  to  protection  against  fire.  In- 
deed scarcely  a  week  passes  but  that  from  one  to  three 
creameries  are  burned  to  the  ground.  In  Denmark,  the 
great  butter  producing  country,  the  creameries  are  nearly 
all  constructed  of  brick. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CREAMERIES  173 

A  good  solid  concrete  or  stone  foundation  adds  much 
to  the  durability  of  a  creamery  building. 

It  matters  not  whether  the  creamery  is  constructed  of 
wood  or  brick,  a  shingle  roof  is  undesirable  because  of 
the  danger  from  fire.  Twenty-six  gage  galvanized  iron, 
when  properly  laid,  will  make  a  cheap  and  very  durable 
roof.  The  roofing  should  be  laid  with  standing  seams  to 
allow  for  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  material.  To 
protect  the  under  side  of  the  roof  from  moisture  and 
corroding  gases  it  is  desirable  to  lay  the  galvanized  iron 
on  acid  and  waterproof  paper. 

Slate  makes  the  neatest  and  most  durable  roof  but  it  is 
rather  expensive. 

Creamery  Dimensions.  These  should  be  such  as 
not  to  crowd  the  machinery,  nor  to  leave  a  great  deal  of 
unnecessary  space.  Where  the  machinery  and  vats  are 
placed  too  close  together  they  cannot  be  conveniently 
cleaned  and  attended  to.  On  the  other  hand,  too  much 
space  means  extra  steps,  extra  pipes  and  conductors,  and 
added  cost  to  the  creamery,  to  say  nothing  of  the  addi- 
tional cleaning. 

Plan  of  Creamery;  There  are  two  general  plans  upon 
which  creameries  have  been  constructed  in  the  past.  One 
is  known  as  the  gravity  plan,  the  other  as  the  one  floor 
plan.  In  the  gravity  plan  the  milk  flows  by  gravity  from 
the  intake  to  the  separator,  thus  dispensing  with  the  use 
of  a  milk  pump.  It  necessitates,  however,  tw.o  floors  on 
a  different  level;  one  for  the  receiving  vat,  the  other, 
five  feet  lower,  for  separators  and  cream  vats.  In  the 
one  floor  plan  all  vats  and  machinery  stand  on  one  floor, 
the  milk  being  forced  into  the  separators  by  means  of 
a  pump. 


174 


CREAMERY   BUTTER  MAKING 


The  chief  objection  to  the  gravity  plan  is  that  it  neces- 
sitates the  climbing  of  high  steps,  which  makes  going 
from  one  floor  to  the  other  difficult  and  tiresome.  Yet, 
not  many  years  ago,  such  steps  were  preferable  to  the  un- 


Fig.  39.— Floor  plan  of  con-bined  gathered  cream  and  whole  milk  creamery. 

srmitary  milk  pumps  then  in  use  for  elevating  the  milk 
into  the  separators.     With  the. vanishing  of  the  old  un- 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CREAMERIES  175 

cleanable  milk  pumps  and  with  the  advent  of  pumps  for 
forcing  cream  into  the  churn,  vanish  the  chief  objec- 
tions that  have  always  been  raised  against  the  one  floor 
creamery.  Our  present  sanitary  milk  pumps  can  be 
cleaned  as  readily  and  thoroughly  as  our  milk  and  cream 
vats. 

Fig.  39  illustrates  a  floor  plan  of  a  combined  gathered 
cream  and  whole  milk  creamery.  Only  the  intake  in  this 
plan  is  elevated  so  as  to  permit  the  milk  and  cream  to 
flow  by  gravity  into  the  receiving  vats. 

Some  preler  to  dispense  with  the  cream  can  shown  in 
the  intake.  In  such  cases  the  cream  receiving  vat  is  placed 
against  the  intake  and  the  cream  is  conducted  into  it  by 
means  of  a  wide  spout  running  through  the  intake  par- 
tition, in  a  manner  similar  to  dumping  grain  at  grain 
elevators. 

The  ceiling  in  the  storage  room  should  be  six  feet 
high,  allowing  just  one  tier  of  salt  barrels  to  be  stored 
there.  The  space  above  is  utilized  for  storing  butter 
tubs.  The  engine  room  is  ceiled  and  the  space  above 
utilized  for  a  hot  water  tank  and  butter  tub  storage.  The 
water  and  steam  gauges  should  be  placed  in  the  make 
room  next  to  the  boiler  room  where  they  can  be  observed 
from  all  points  of  the  creamery. 

In  regard  to  the  cold  water  tank,  it  is  well  to  remem- 
ber to  locate  this  where  it  is  easily  accessible.  This  tank 
should  be  frequently  cleaned,  a  matter  whose  importance 
is  too  often  underrated  by  buttermakers.  Both  the  hot 
water  and  cold  water  tanks  should  have  overflow  pipes 
about  twice  the  size  of  the  inlet  pipes  to  prevent  slop 
and  damage  from  overflowing  tanks. 

Location  of  Refrigerator  and  Ice  House.        It    is    a 


176  CREAMERY   BUTTER   MAKING 

great  mistake  to  have  the  ice  house  detached  from  the 
creamery.  Where  this  is  the  case  much  unnecessary  labor 
has  to  be  performed  in  filling  the  refrigerator.  The  ice 
house  and  refrigerator  should  adjoin  with  only  a  well 
built  wall  between  them.  * 

Intake  for  Whole  Milk  Creamery.  Nowhere  in  the 
creamery  can  so  much  labor  be  economized  as  in  the  in- 
take when  properly  constructed.  The  author  can  state 
from  years  of  experience  at  the  intake,  handling  from 
10,000  to  15,000  pounds  of  milk  daily,  that  the  work  in  a 
poor  intake  is  by  far  the  hardest  that  falls  to  the  lot  of 
the  butter  maker.  Where  cans  weighing  from  100  to 
200  pounds  have  to  be  raised  one  or  two  feet  to  get  them 
from  the  wagon  onto  the  platform,  and  then  three  feet 
more  to  get  them  emptied  into  the  weigh  can,  the  amount 
of  work  necessary  in  weighing  in  15,000  pounds  of  milk 
is  easily  imagined.  Intakes  of  this  type  are  numerous. 

On  the  other  hand,  an  intake  that  dispenses  with  all 
this  can  lifting  offers  comparatively  easy  work.  Fig.  40 
illustrates  such  an  intake.  The  top  of  the  wagon  box 
is  on  a  level  with  the  platform.  The  can  after  reach- 
ing the  platform  is  dumped  without  practically  any  lifting. 
When  ten  gallon  cans  are  used  (and  these  are  always 
preferred)  and  a  moderately  strong  boy  draws  the  milk, 
the  butter  maker  need  not  step  upon  the  platform  at 
all.  He  smells  of  every  can  before  it  is  dumped,  weighs 
and  samples  the  milk,  and  distributes  the  skimmilk  and 
buttermilk.  Any  creamery  that  is  located  where  there 
is  a  moderate  slope  can  have  an  intake  like  that  here 
referred  to  with  the  little  extra  cost  of  the  platform. 

Construction  of  Floor.  Construct  a  six-inch  concrete 
floor  upon  a  well  tamped  foundation  consisting  of  gravel, 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CREAMERIES 


Li  I 


cobble  stones  and  cinders.  These  materials  afford  good 
drainage  and  thus  prevent  the  cold  and  dampness  usually 
associated  with  concrete  floors.  In  preparing  the  concrete 
for  the  floor  use  one  part  cement,  two  parts  clean,  coarse 
sand  and  four  parts  gravel  or  crushed  stone.  Finish  with 
one  part  cement  and  one  part  sand. 

All  parts  of  the  floor  should  slope  toward  the  drain  in 
the  center.  Round  out  the  corners  and  edges  of  the  floor 
with  concrete  to  make  them  more  easily  cleanable. 


Fig.  40.— Section  through  whole  milk  creamery. 

To  provide  insulation  for  the  concrete  floor  of  the  re- 
frigerator, asbestos,  hollow  brick  or  tile  is  used  as  shown 
in  Fig.  42,  p.  185.  The  asbestos  must  be  protected  from 
moisture  by  covering  both  sides  with  waterproof  paper. 

Construction  of  Walls  and  Ceiling.  The  inside  of 
the  brick  or  block  walls  are  preferably  finished  with  cement 
plaster  as  follows :  First  apply  about  one  inch  of  cement 
plaster,  consisting  of  one  part  cement,  three  parts  clean, 
coarse  sand,  and  one  part  slaked  lime  paste.  Follow  this 
with  a  finish  consisting  of  one  part  cement  and  one  part 
sand  and  trowel  off  as  smoothly  as  possible.  The  appear- 
ance of  a  wall  thus  constructed  is  much  improved  by  coat- 
12 


178 


CREAMERY   BUTTER   MAKING 


ing  it  with  a  cement  filler  which  produces  a  uniform, 
grayish  color. 

The  ceiling  should  be  built  of  the  best  ceiling  lumber 
and  must  be  kept  well  painted. 

Sewerage;  Effective  sewerage  must  be  provided  at 
the  time  the  floor  is  laid.  A  bell  trap  (Fig.  41)  should  be 
placed  in  the  center  of  each  room  and  carefully  connected 
with  the  sewer.  Conduct  the  sewage  far  enough  away  to 
keep  its  odors  a  safe  distance  from  the  creamery.  See 
chapter  XX. 

Ventilation.  Hitherto  this  subject  has  received 
little  or  no  attention  whatever  from  creamery  builders. 

The  influence  of  foul, 
moist  air  upon  the  qual- 
ity of  the  butter  and  the 
general  health  of  the 
buttermaker  is  too  little 
appreciated.  We  hear 
much  about  that  '  'pecu- 
liar creamery  odor' ' 
which  is  simply  an- 
Fig.  4i.-Beiitrap.  other  expression  for 

the  foul,  moist,  stifling  air  that  prevails  in  a  great  many 
of  our  creameries.  Almost  daily  we  learn  of  butter 
makers  who  are  forced  into  retirement  or  compelled  to 
take  up  other  lines  of  work  because  of  lung  trouble, 
rheumatism,  or  general  ill  health.  Unsanitary  creamery 
conditions  are  held  accountable. 

Ventilating  shafts,  extending  from  the  creamery  room 
to  the  top. of  the  building  where  they  end  in  cupolas,  are 
serviceable  but  inadequate  for  the  best  ventilation.  The 
most  effective  ventilator  with  which  the  author  is  ac- 


CONSTRUCTION  OI>  CREAMERIES  179 

quainted  is  installed  in  the  Michigan  Dairy  School.  This 
ventilator  consists  of  a  galvanized  iron  pipe,  fifteen  inches 
in  diameter,  which  is  suspended  from  the  ceiling.  The  pipe 
starts  from  the  middle  of  the  creamery  room,  where  it 
is  expanded  into  a  cowl  five  feet  in  diameter,  and  is 
placed  right  up  against  the  ceiling.  It  ends  in  a  fan  or 
blower  four  feet  in  diameter  which  is  located  in  the  boiler 
room.  Here  the  blower  connects  with  a  chimney  extend- 
ing from  the  floor  through  the  roof  of  the  building.  The 
fan  is  so  run  that  it  will  suck  the  air  from  the  creamery 
room  into  the  ventilating  pipe  whence  it  is  discharged 
into  the  chimney.  With  a  speed  of  two  hundred  revolu- 
tions per  minute  the  air  of  an  ordinary  creamery  room 
can  be  changed  six  to  eight  times  per  hour.  Less  than 
one  horse  power  is  required  to  run  the  fan. 

Sucking  the  air  out  of  the  room  will,  of  course,  neces- 
sitate an  inlet  of  air  from  the  outside.  A  two-inch  screen 
under  a  few  windows  will  answer  this  purpose  very  well. 

The  cost  of  pipes  and  blower  will  not  exceed  $125,  an 
amount  that  should  be  no  consideration  where  the  health 
of  the  butter  maker  and  the  quality  of  the  butter  are  at 
stake. 

Bath  Room.  Some,  no  doubt,  will  look  upon  a  bath 
room  as  a  novelty  and  luxury  rather  than  as  a  neces- 
sary adjunct  to  the  creamery.  But  where  everything 
needs  to  be  kept  so  scrupulously  clean,  it  must  be  im- 
portant for  the  butter  maker  and  his  assistants  to  keep 
themselves  clean  also.  The  sweaty  smell  of  the  butter 
maker  can  certainly  have  no  favorable  effect  upon  his 
produce^  so  sensitive  to  all  odors,  nor  upon  his  own  pre- 
cious health.  A  light  daily  bath  after  the  work  is -done 
can  not  fail  to  add  much  to  the  comfort  and  health  of  the 


180  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

butter  maker  and  his  helpers.  The  bath  room  will  add  to 
the  sanitary  aspect  of  the  whole  creamery  and  will  teach 
the  patrons  an  object  lesson  in  personal  cleanliness  in  the 
care  and  handling  of  their  milk. 

Where  a  septic  tank  is  used  there  is  no  reason  why 
the  bath  room  should  not  be  equipped  with  a  water  closet. 
This  should  be  done  both  as  a  matter  of  sanitation  and 
convenience. 

Heating  of  Creamery.  Creameries  should  be  heated 
by  steam,  not  with  stoves.  Either  the  exhaust  steam 
from  the  engine  or  steam  taken  directly  from  the  boiler 
may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  The  heating  pipes  should  be 
so  arranged  that  either  may  be  used  when  desired. 

Where  the  exhaust  steam  is  used  to  heat  water  for  the 
boiler  and  for  washing,  it  may  be  best  to  heat  the  build- 
ing with  steam  taken  directly  from  the  boiler. 

A  very  satisfactory  method  of  piping  is  the  following: 
Run  one  and  one-half  inch  pipes  from  the  boiler  to  within 
two  feet  of  the  floor,  and  close  to  the  walls  of  the  creamery 
room.  The  pipes  should  pass  all  around  the  creamery 
room  and  end  in  a  steam  trap  which  discharges  the  con- 
densed steam  into  a  hot  well  located  near  the  injector, 
so  that  the  hot  water  may  readily  be  drawn  into  the  boiler. 
The  heating  pipes  must  all  slope  towards  this  well.  Where 
the  boiler  floor  is  lower  than  the  creamery  floor  an  oil 
barrel  sawed  in  two  may  be  made  to  serve  the  purpose 
of  a  hot  well. 

A  reducing  valve  should  be  placed  near  the  boiler  so 
that  any  amount  of  pressure  may  be  carried  in  the  heat- 
ing pipes.  With  a  good  valve  of  this  kind  a  pressure 
as  low  as  one  pound  may  be  carried  when  the  boiler 
pressure  varies  from  twenty  to  fifty  pounds. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CREAMERIES  181 

The  cost  of  steam  trap  and  reducing  valve  should  not 
exceed  $15. 

Screening.  Where  proper  sanitation  is  expected  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  guard  against  flies,  and  this  can 
easily  be  done  by  screening  all  doors  and  windows.  Flies 
are  a  prolific  source  of  milk  contamination  and  must 
therefore  be  rigidly  excluded  from  the  creamery. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

ICE,    ICE  -HOUSE    AND    REFRIGERATOR. 
ICE. 

Necessity  of  Ice;  Where  there  is  no  equipment  for 
mechanical  refrigeration,  an  abundant  supply  of  ice  be- 
comes indispensable  in  making  the  best  quality  of  butter. 
A  low  refrigerator  temperature  can  not  be  maintained 
without  the  use  of  a  great  deal  of  ice.  The  increased  use 
of  starters  and  pasteurizers  also  demands  increasingly 
large  supplies  of  ice. 

Cooling  Power  of  Ice.  A  great  deal  of  cooling  can 
be  done  with  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  ice.  This 
is  due  to  the  latent  or  "hidden"  cold  in  ice.  Thus  to 
convert  one  pound  of  ice  at  32°  F.  into  water  at  the  same 
temperature  requires  142  units  of  heat,  or,  in  other  words, 
enough  cold  is  given  out  to  reduce  the  temperature  of 
142  pounds  of  water  one  degree  Fahr. 

Source  of  Ice.  Always  select  the  cleanest  ice  available. 
Lake  ice  usually  proves  very  satisfactory.  Where  the 
source  of  ice  is  at  too  great  a  distance  from  the  dairy, 
an  artificial  pond  should  be  made  upon  ground  with  a 
reasonably  impervious  subsoil  and  with  a  natural  con- 
cave formation.  If  such  a  piece  of  ground  is  flooded 
with  water  during  the  coldest  weather,  an  ample  supply 
of  ice  will  be  available  in  a  very  short  time. 

Cost  of  Making  Ice.  Where  ice  can  be  obtained 
within  a  reasonable  distance,  the  cost  of  cutting,  hauling 
and  packing  should  not  exceed  one  dollar  per  ton. 

182 


NATURAL  REFRIGERATION  183 

ICE;  HOUSE. 

Location.  The  ice  house  should  be  joined  to  the 
creamery,  preferably  at  the  north  end,  which  affords  the 
greatest  protection  from  the  sun.  Where  the  ice  house 
is  detached  from  the  creamery,  too  much  unnecessary 
labor  must  be  performed  in  filling  the  refrigerator.  See 
Fig-  39>  page  174. 

Size  of  Ice  House.  The  size  of  the  ice  house  will 
depend,  of  course,  upon  the  amount  of  ice  to  be  used. 
When  this  has  been  determined,  calculate  the  necessary 
storage  space  by  allowing  57.5  pounds  for  every  cubic 
foot  of  ice.  For  a  creamery  making  on  an  average  1,000 
pounds  of  butter  a  day,  an  ice  house  16  feet  high,  32 
feet  long  and  16  feet  wide  will  usually  be  found  adequate. 
It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  amount  of 
ice  necessary  to  make  a  given  amount  of  butter  will 
depend,  to  no  small  extent,  upon  the  degree  of  insula- 
tion of  ice  house  and  refrigerator  and  the  amount  used 
for  cooling  cream,  making  ice  cream,  selling  cream,  etc. 

Construction  of  Ice  House.  To  keep  ice  satisfactorily 
three  things  are  necessary,  ( i )  good  drainage  at  the  bot- 
tom, (2)  good  insulation,  and  (3)  abundant  ventilation 
at  the  top. 

Good  drainage  and  insulation  at  the  bottom  can  be 
secured  by  laying  an  eight-inch  foundation  of  stones  and 
gravel  and  on  top  of  this  six  inches  of  cinders,  the  whole 
being  underlaid  with  drain  tile.  One  foot  of  sawdust 
should  be  packed  upon  the  cinders  and  the  ice  laid  directly 
upon  the  sawdust. 

Satisfactory  walls  are  secured  by  using  matched  boards 
on  the  outside  of  the  studs  and  common  rough  boards  on 


184  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

the  inside,  leaving  the  space  between  the  studs  empty. 
The  ice  should  be  separated  from  the  walls  by  one  foot  of 
sawdust. 

Solid  foundation  walls  must  be  provided  to  prevent  the 
entrance  of  air  along  the  base. 

The  space  between  the  sawdust  covering  on  top  of 
the  ice  and  the  roof  should  be  left  clear.  Openings  in  the 
gable  ends  as  well  as  one  or  two  ventilating  shafts  pro- 
jecting through  the  roof,  should  be  provided  to  insure  a 
free  circulation  of  air  under  the  roof.  This  will  not  only 
remove  the  hot  air  which  naturally  gathers  beneath  the 
roof,  but  will  aid  in  drying  the  sawdust. 

The.  ice  must  be  packed  solidly,  using  no  sawdust 
except  at  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  ice  house  and  on 
top  of  the  ice  when  the  filling  is  completed.  At  least  one 
foot  of  sawdust  must  be  packed  on  top  of  the  ice. 

As  a  matter  of  convenience  in  filling  and  emptying  the 
ice  house,  doors  should  be  provided  in  sections  from  the 
sill  to  the  gable  at  one  end  of  the  building. 

REFRIGERATOR. 

Location.  When  convenience  in  filling  is  desired,  the 
refrigerator  should  be  built  in  a  corner  of  the  ice  house, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  39. 

Size.  This  will  depend,  of  course,  upon  the  amount 
of  butter  made.  For  a  creamery  making  from  800  to 
1,000  pounds  of  butter  a  day  a  refrigerator  8  to  10  feet 
wide  by  10  feet  long  will  be  found  large  enough. 

Refrigerator  With  Ice  Overhead.  From  the  stand- 
point of  efficiency,  the  ice  should  be  placed  overhead, 
and  not  at  the  end  or  sides  of  the  refrigerator  as  is  com- 
monly done.  With  ice  placed  overhead  it  is  possible  to 


NATURAL  REFRIGERATION 


185 


DRAIW  TO 


CEMEMT  PCASTER 
WIRE    LATH.  _  _ 


T  £  O  BOA  R  D  S 
STEEL   RIBS 


J 

i 


&G^&^^^&^?&r&T(£J1, 

&^J&&j&<je?*fX&&&35i3&. c 


IM  SOU  AT  IOMI  A-.BE  ->-TO=>,  MOLUOW  BRICK. 


*  "7fl  &y^Wf^^L^&M&£l. 


Fig.  42 —Refrigerator  with  ice  overhead. 


186  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

secure  a  drier  and  cooler  air.  This  method  of  refrigera- 
tion is  illustrated  in  Fig.  42.  The  entire  inside  of  this 
refrigerator  is  finished  with  cement  plaster  making  it  both 
durable  and  sanitary.  Two  dead  air  spaces  are  provided : 
a  three-quarter-inch  space  between  the  concrete  and  the 
boards  to  which  the  wire  lathing  is  fastened  and  a  four- 
inch  space  between  the  2x4-inch  studding.  These  two 
spaces  together  with  the  four  layers  of  paper  used,  pro- 
vide a  high  degree  of  insulation. 

The  concrete  floor  of  the  refrigerator  is  constructed 
upon  a  foundation  of  twelve  inches  of  cinders,  overlaid 
with  hollow  brick,  tile,  or  asbestos  wrapped  in  water- 
proof paper.  This  construction  provides  the  necessary 
insulation. 

The  floor  of  the  ice  chamber  is  built  of  2x4~inch  stud- 
ding running  the  length  of  the  refrigerator.  These  studs 
are  laid  about  three  inches  apart  to  allow  the  water  from 
the  melting  ice  to  drip  through.  Below  the  ice  chamber 
is  a  shallow  pan,  which  catches  the  drip  from  the  ice 
and  conducts  it  into  the  sewer.  The  pan  is  supported  by 
means  of  two  2x4-inch  studs  running  the  full  length  of 
the  ice  chamber.  Both  ends  of  the  studs  are  provided 
with  hooks  by  means  of  which  the  pan  is  readily  attached 
to,  and  detached  from,  the  ice  chamber.  This  method  of 
attachment  is  necessary  to  permit  the  easy  removal  of  the 
pan  for  cleaning. 

The  refrigerator  must  be  provided  with  a  door  having 
at  least  two  dead-air  spaces  and  two  flanges  which  fit 
snugly  into  the  frame  of  the  refrigerator. 

The  ice  is  admitted  to  the  ice  chamber  through  a  door 
in  the  rear  end  of  the  refrigerator. 

Refrigerator  With  Ice  at  End.     This  style  of  refrig- 


NATURAL  REFRIGERATION 


187 


erator,  while  less  efficient  than  that  using  ice  overhead, 
is  commonly  preferred  because  of  the  greater  ease  of 
filling  the  ice  chamber.  Fig  43  illustrates  the  general 
plan  of  construction.  The  details  as  to  floor  and  wall 
construction  are  the  same  as  those  shown  in  Fig.  42. 


REFRIGERATOR       ROOM 


Fig.  43.— Refrigerator  with  ice  box  at  end. 

Refrigerator  Cooled  with  Ammonia.  Such  a  re- 
frigerator may  be  constructed  in  the  same  way  as  the  one 
described  in  the  preceding  pages,  with  the  exception 
of  the  ice  chamber.  In  place  of  this  a  brine  tank  and 
refrigerator  coils  are  used  as  shown  in  Fig.  52,  page  206. 
For  further  particulars  regarding  this  method  of  refrig- 
eration, see  chapter  on  Mechanical  Refrigeration. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

SEWAGE:  DISPOSAL. 

To  secure  a  high  degree  of  sanitation  in  and  about 
the  creamery  it  is  necessary  to  see  that  proper  disposal 
is  made  of  the  sewage  from  both  the  creamery  and  the 
dwelling  of  the  buttermaker.  Where  the  latter  is  situated 
close  to  the  creamery  its  surroundings  may  do  about  as 
much  harm  as  those  of  the  creamery  itself. 

With  open  privies  and  the  careless  dumping  of  kitchen 
slops  near  the  dwelling,  we  have  a  double  means  of  en- 
dangering the  creamery.  If  the  ground  near  the  dwelling 
and  privy  slopes  in  the  direction  of  the  water  supply,  the 
latter  is  likely  to  become,  contaminated  through  seepage  in 
the  manner  indicated  in  Fig.  69.  In  addition  to  this  there 
is  the  danger  of  flies  carrying  various  kinds  of  bacteria 
from  these  places  to  the  creamery.  Flies  not  only  carry 
the  obnoxious,  putrefactive  species,  but  too  often  also 
the  deadly  pathogenic  kinds,  such  as  cause  typhoid  fever, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  offensive  excrementitious  matter 
conveyed  in  this  manner. 

Obviously  the  accumulation  of  sewage  about  the  cream- 
ery itself  is  attended  by  even  greater  dangers  than  those 
arising  from  the  unsanitary  surroundings  of  the  dwelling. 
Moreover  there  is  certain  to  be  trouble  also  from  bad 
odors. 

SEPTIC   TANK. 

The  best  means  of  taking  care  of  the  sewage   from 

188 


SEWAGE  DISPOSAL 


189 


both  the  creamery  and  the  dwelling  is  to  run  it  into  a  septic 
tank  (see  Fig.  44,  designed  by  the  author)  and  from 
this  into  a  net-work  of  tile  laid  underground  where  it 
will  irrigate  and  fertilize  the  soil. 

Object  of  Septic  Tank.  The  main  purpose  of  the 
tank,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  to  thoroughly  decompose 
all  organic  matter  entering  it.  This  is  accomplished  by 
numerous  species  of  bacteria,  and  the  tank  may  be 
properly  designated  as  a  germ  incubator.  Where  the 


Fig.  44.— Septic  Tank. 

sewage  is  emptied  into  underground  tile,  the  tank  also 
serves  as  a  storage,  discharging  its  contents  intermittently. 
This  is  necessary  to  force  the  liquid  to  all  points  of  the 
system  and  to  allow  time  for  each  discharge  to  soak  away 
before  the  appearance  of  the  next. 

Construction  of  Tank.  The  general  plan  of  construc- 
tion is  illustrated  in  Figs.  44  and  45.  The  tank  is  located 
in  the  ground  with  the  top  within  a  foot  or  two  of  the 
surface.  For  durability  it  is  preferably  constructed  of 
brick,  stone  or  concrete.  The  tank  is  so  constructed  as  to 
12 


190 


CREAMERY   BUTTER   MAKING 


retain  all  sediment  and  floating  material,  since  the  dis- 
charges permit  the  withdrawal  of  the  liquid  from  near  the 
middle  of  the  tank  only.  This  is  one  of  the  main  features 
of  the  tank.  All  inorganic  matter  entering  the  tank  will 
gradually  settle  and,  of  course,  remain  in  it.  Some  of 
the  organic  matter  tends  to  settle  during  the  first  24  hours, 

after  which  it  comes  to  the 
surface  to  be  gradually 
wasted  away  by  the  action 
of  bacteria.  This  wasting 
away  is  naturally  very 
slow,  and  since  the  slowly 
gathering  organic  matter 
nearly  all  remains  in  the 
first  section  of  the  tank, 
this  must  be  large  enough 
to  provide  for  a  consider- 
able accumulation  of  it. 

The  tank  should  be  built  air  tight,  except  in  two  places. 
At  the  right  is  an  air  inlet,  consisting  of  a  goose-neck 
pipe,  which  renders  the  vent  at  the  top  more  effective. 
This  vent  consists  of  a  long  shaft  extending  beyond  the 
top  of  the  dairy,  thus  carrying  off  the  foul  gases  caused 
by  the  decomposition  of  the  material  within.  One-inch 
gas  pipe,  properly  fastened,  will  serve  as  a  satisfactory 
vent. 

In  order  to  afford  communication  of  sections  A  and  C 
with  the  vent,  the  two  partitions  should^  not  be  built 
quite  as  high  as  the  tank.  There  should  be  at  least  one 
inch  space  between  the  top  of  the  partitions  and  the  cover. 
A  i  y2  -inch  gas  pipe  should  be  laid  over  the  tank 
through  which  the  water  from  the  cooler  and  vats  may 
be  discharged  directly  into  the  drain.  This  water 


Fig.  45.— Cross  Section  of  Septic 
Tank. 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL  191 

requires  no  purification  and,  if  conducted  through  the 
tank,  would  necessitate  one  of  too  large  dimensions. 
Moreover,  the  large  amount  of  cold  water  needed  for 
cooling  milk  and  cream  would  cool  the  contents  of  the 
tank  too  much  for  a  rapid  decomposition  of  the  material 
within. 

Size  of  Tank.  This  must  necessarily  depend  upon  the 
amount  of  sewage  run  into  it.  In  general  it  should  have 
capacity  sufficient  to  hold  all  of  one  day's  waste  in  the 
smallest  section  (C).  It  will  be  noticed  from  the  cut 
that  section  A  is  considerably  larger  than  either  of  the 
other  two.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  nearly  all  of  the 
inorganic  matter  remains  in  the  bottom  of  this  part  of  the 
tank,  while  the  organic  matter,  as  already  stated,  gradu- 
ally accumulates  at  the  surface  in  this  section,  in  spite 
of  constant  decomposition.  Where  the  tank  receives  the 
sewage  from  both  the  dairy  and  the  dwelling,  a  tank 
12  feet  square  by  4^  feet  deep  will  be  large  enough, 
provided  the  water  used  for  cooling  is  not  run  into  it. 
It  is  well  to  remember,  however,  that  the  larger  the  tank 
used  the  better  the  results  that  may  be  expected  from  it. 

Flow  of  Sewage  Through  Tank.  Four-inch  tile, 
carefully  laid,  may  be  used  to  conduct  the  sewage  from  the 
creamery  to  the  tank.  A  trap  is  placed  near  the  creamery 
to  shut  off  the  odors  coming  from  the  drain.  At  the 
point  at  which  the  sewage  enters  the  tank  it  is  desirable 
to  attach  an  elbow  with  an  arm  sufficiently  long  to  keep 
the  lower  end  always  in  the  sewage.  This  prevents  un- 
due mixing  of  the  incoming  sewage  with  that  already 
in  the  tank,  a  matter  of  importance  in  the  successful 
operation  of  the  tank. 

When  the  sewage  in  section  A  has  reached  the  dotted 
line,  it  begins  to  discharge  into  section  B  through  three- 


192  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

inch  gas  pipe  as  shown  in  Fig.  45.  The  liquid  is  with- 
drawn from  a  point  near  the  middle  of  the  tank  as  in- 
dicated by  the  discharge  pipes.  The  eight-inch  space 
above  the  discharge  permits  the  accumulation  of  organic 
matter.  The  discharge  from  'B  into  C  is  the  same  as 
that  from  A  into  B ;  but  the  discharge  pipes  are  of  neces- 
sity lower  by  an  amount  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines. 
Compartment  C  discharges  intermittently  by  means  of 
an  automatic  syphon. 

The  sewage  becomes  gradually  purified  in  its  passage 
through  the  tank,  and  as  it  flows  from  the  last  section 
it  is  nearly  as  clear  as  water,  but  has  a  slightly  sour  odor, 
which  it  seems  to  retain  and  which  is  in  no  way  objection- 
able. The  purified  sewage  has  been  kept  for  weeks  with 
no  sign  of  the  development  of  putrefactive  odors. 

The  discharges  should  be  arranged  as  shown  in  Fig. 
45-  This  arrangement  will  cause  the  least  mixing  of  old 
and  new  sewage.  There  is  no  discharge  from  A  into  'B 
until  the  second  day's  sewage  flows  into  A.  Similarly 
there  is  no  discharge  from  B  into  C  until  the  second 
discharge  into  B,  etc.  The  sewage,  therefore,  requires 
from  three  to  four  days  in  its  passage  through  the  tank. 

Cost  of  Septic  Tank.  A  double  partition  tank,  12 
feet  square  and  4^2  feet  deep,  constructed  of  concrete 
consisting  of  one  part  cement,  two  parts  sand  and  four 
parts  gravel,  will  cost  approximately  $50.00  when  the 
walls  are  five  inches  thick. 

SEWAGE)  DISPOSAL   FROM  DWELLING. 

The  open  privy  and  the  cesspool  of  kitchen  slops  are 
objectionable  not  qnly  in  so  far  as  they  affect  the  cream- 
ery, but  also  in  that  they  constitute  a  source  of  danger 
to  the  members  of  the  family  in  ways  entirely  discon- 
nected with  the  milk  supply.  With  the  creamery 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL  193 

already  equipped  with  power  to  pump  and  elevate  water, 
there  is  apparently  no  reason  why  the  dwelling  should 
not  be  equipped  with  a  water  closet.  And  with  a  water 
closet  in  the  house  there  would  be  practically  no  expense 
connected  with  the  disposal  of  the  kitchen  waste,  since 
this  would  be  discharged  directly  into  the  soil  pipe  con- 
nected with  the  closet.  What  a  convenience  such  an 
equipment  would  afford  to  the  housewife  and  members  of 
the  family! 

If  the  dwelling  and  creamery  are  reasonably  close 
together,  one  septic  tank  will  answer  for  both.  In  such 
a  case  the  tank  is  located  between  the  two  buildings. 
Where  a  great  distance  separates  the  buildings,  a  tank 
is  provided  for  each  and  the  outlets  are  brought  together 
as  near  the  tank  as  possible  to  save  extra  expense  of  tile. 

SUBSURFACE    IRRIGATION. 

While  the  septic  tank  sufficiently  decomposes  the 
organic  matter  to  leave  the  sewage  from  the  tank  without 
offensive  odors,  it  is  best  to  run  the  discharge  into  a 
system  of  underground  tile  where  it  will  serve  as  a  fer- 
tilizer and  as  an  irrigating  agent.  The  tile  should  be 
laid  below  the  frost  line.  In  loose  soils  one  foot  of  tile 
per  gallon  of  sewage  will  answer.  Clayey  soils  require 
two  to  three  times  this  amount. 

Three-inch  agricultural  drain  tile  are  best  adapted  for 
drainage  work  of  this  kind,  the  tile  being  laid  with  open 
joints  and  with  a  slope  of  three  or  four  inches  per  .hundred 
feet. 

It  is  important  that  this  subsurface  irrigating  system 
be  located  where  there  is  no  seepage  into  the  water  supply. 
In  places  where  there  is  no  danger  from  frost  it  is  best 
to  lay  the  tile  only  about  one  and  one-half  feet  below  the 
surface. 

13 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

WASHING  AND  STERILIZING  MILK  VESSELS. 

Wash  Sinks.  A  matter  of  importance  in  washing 
milk  vessels  is  to  have  the  right  kind  of  sinks,  three  of 
which  are  needed  for  the  most  satisfactory  work:  One 


Fig.  46.— Wash  Sinks. 

for  rinsing  before  washing,  one  for  washing  and  one  for 
final  rinsing. 

For  convenience  the  wash   sink  should  be  thirty-six 

194 


WASHING    AND    STERILIZING 


195 


inches  long,  twelve  inches  deep,  and  sixteen  inches  wide. 
The  bottom  should  be  round  and  two  feet  from  the  floor. 
When  closer  to  the  floor  than  this  too  much  stooping  is 
required. 


Fig.  48.— Milk  Bottle  Brush. 
Fig.  47.— A  Good  Cleaning  Brush. 

Galvanized  iron  furnishes  one  of  the  most  suitable  ma- 
terials for  the  construction  of  wash  sinks.  They  should 
be  provided  with  steam  and  cold  water  pipes  as  shown 
in  Fig.  46. 

Method  of  Washing.  All  vessels  should  be  thor- 
oughly rinsed  in 
warm  water  to  re- 
move small  residues 
of  milk  and  cream. 
The  rinsing  is  fol- 
lowed by  washing 
with  moderately  hot 
water  to  which  a 
handful  of  some 
cleaning  powder  has 
been  added.  The 
washing  should  be 
done  with  brushes 
rather  than  cloths  be- 
cause the  bristles  en- 
ter into  crevices  which 


Fig.  49.— Bottle  Washer. 


a  cloth  could  not  possibly  reach.    Finally  rinse  the  vessels 
in  clean  water. 

A  bottle  washer,  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  49>  saves  much 


196  CREAMERY   BUTTER   MAKING 

labor  and  does  very  efficient  work.  The  motive  power 
may  be  either  steam  or  water. 

Where  many  cans  are  washed  a  can  washer  will  be 
found  helpful.  In  cleaning  cans  it  is  well  to  remember 
that  water  alone  will  not  clean  them.  The  water  must  be 
reinforced  with  a  brush  and  some  cleaning  powder. 

Sterilizing.  Vessels  that  have  been  washed  in  the  man- 
ner described  above  may  look  perfectly  clean,  but  may 
still  be  far  from  being  free  from  bacteria.  These  can  be 
destroyed  only  by  exposing  the  vessels  to  the  boiling 
temperature  for  some  time. 

Cans  may  be  sterilized  by  inverting  them  over  a  steam 
jet  several  minutes.  They  should  be  left  inverted  some 
time  after  steaming  to  drain. 

Open  vats,  milk  tanks,  butter  printers,  etc.,  can  not  be 
satisfactorily  steamed ;  they  should  be  sterilized  with  boil- 
ing water. 

Dippers,  pails,  separator  parts,  bottles,  butter  ladles, 
packers,  etc.,  are  preferably  sterilized  with  steam  in  a 
closed  sterilizer.  The  author  has  designed  and  thoroughly 
tested  a  cheap,  concrete  sterilizer  which  answers  the  pur- 
pose entirely  satisfactorily.  This  sterilizer  should  be  built 
in  a  corner  of  the  wash  room. 

Sterilizer  Designed  by  the  Author.  A  section  through 
this  sterilizer  is  shown  in  Fig.  50.  Essentially,  it  is  a 
rectangular  concrete  tank  with  a  wooden  cover,  which  is 
lined  with  zinc.  The  sides  and  bottom  are  five  inches 
thick  and  are  built  of  concrete,  which  is  made  up  of  one 
part  cement,  two  parts  of  sand,  and  two  parts  of  coarse 
gravel.  A  thin  coat,  consisting  of  one  part  cement  and 
two  parts  sand,  is  used  as  an  inside  finish.  A  piece  of 
2x4-inch  studding  is  placed  around  the  top  of  the  tank 


WASHING  AND  STERILIZING 


197 


Fig.  50.— Cross-section  of  concrete  sterilizer. 

and  is  secured  by  six  one-half  inch  iron  rods,  two  feet 
long  and  embedded  in  the  concrete  walls,  one  being  placed 
at  each  corner,  and  one  on  either  side  midway  between  the 
corners.  This  arrangement  not  only  strengthens  the  tank, 
but  also  makes  the  cover  fit  tighter. 


198  CRBAMEttY  BUTTER  MAKING 

.  The  cover  consists  of  two  thicknesses  of  one  and  one- 
eighth  inch  tongued  and  grooved  flooring  three  and  one- 
half  inches  wide.  The  upper  boards  run  lengthwise  and 
the  lower  crosswise  of  the  tank.  The  lower  boards  fit 
into  a  shoulder  projecting  from  the  base  of  the  2x4-inch 
studding.  The  entire  inside  portion  of  the  cover  is  cov- 
ered with  zinc.  To  insure  additional  tightness  of  the 
cover,  a  layer  of  asbestos  is  placed  on  top  of  the  2x45. 
A  heavy  weight  attached  to  a  one-half  inch  rope  running 
over  a  pulley  fastened  to  the  ceiling,  raises  the  cover  and 
holds  it  open  when  desired.  The  cover  is  strengthened 
by  running  three  pieces  of  2x4-inch  studding  crosswise 
of  the  tank,  one  at  the  middle  and  one  at  either  end.  The 
hinges  by  which  the  cover  is  fastened  are  attached  to 
these  2x45,  as  shown  in  Fig.  50. 

A  safety  valve,  set  at  ten  pounds  pressure,  is  inserted 
through  the  top  of  the  cover  at  the  most  convenient  place. 
A  bell  trap  (see  Fig.  41)  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the 
sterilizer  serves  as  an  outlet  for  the  condensed  steam. 

The  steam  is  admitted  either  through  the  sides  or 
through  the  bottom  of  the  sterilizer,  and  both  inlet  and 
outlet  pipes  should  be  laid  in  the  concrete  at  the  time  the 
sterilizer  is  being  built. 

A  false,  perforated  metallic  bottom  is  placed  one  inch 
from  the  bottom  of  the  sterilizer,  on  which  all  vessels  are 
placed  in  an  inverted  position. 

The  following  is  an  itemized  statement  of  the  cost  of 
the  material  used  in  the  construction  of  this  sterilizer, 
whose  inside  dimensions  are:  length,  7  1-3  feet;  width, 
2  1-4  feet;  depth,  2  1-3  feet. 


WASHING  AND  STERILIZING  199 

2  bbls.  of  Portland  cement $5-20 

20  ft.  of  2  x  4  studding 30 

no  ft.  of  il/%  tongued  and  grooved  flooring,  3^2  wide 4-4° 

4  hinges    40 

5  Ibs.  nails  20 

6  ^2-inch  iron  rods  2^2  feet  long 1.20 

3  hasps   30 

20  sq.   ft.  zinc   1.75 

Ball  and  lever  safety-valve i.oo 

3  pounds  sheet  asbestos    30 


Total .$15.05 

Elevated  Hot  Water  Tank.  A  tank  providing  hot 
water  should  be  located  in  or  near  the  boiler  room  and  ele- 
vated so  that  hot  water  can  be  conducted  to  the  churn,  but- 
ter printer  and  vats.  A  few  coils  of  gas  pipes  placed  in 
the  bottom  of  the  tank,  through  which  the  exhaust  steam 
from  the  engine  can  be  conducted,  will  furnish  all  the 
hot  water  necessary.  This  tank  should  be  covered  and 
provided  with  a  vent  to  permit  the  escape  of  steam  during 
excessive  heating  of  the  water  within. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

DETECTION  OF  TAINTED  MILK  AND  CREAM. 

In  well  regulated  creameries  the  head  butter  maker 
will  usually  be  found  at  the  intake  every  morning  care- 
fully examining  the  milk  as  it  arrives  at  the  factory.  It 
requires  skill  and  training  to  detect  and  properly  locate 
the  numerous  taints  to  which  milk  is  heir.  It  also  requires 
considerable  tact  to  reform  patrons  who  have  been  care- 
less in  the  handling  of  their  milk.  The  best  skill  available 
in  the  creamery  should  therefore  be  placed  in  the  intake. 

In  the  daily  examination  of  milk,  defects  can  usually  be 
detected  by  smelling  of  it  as  soon  as  the  cover  is  re- 
moved from  the  cans.  When,  however,  milk  arrives  at 
the  creamery  at  a  temperature  of  50°  F.  or  below,  it 
becomes  more  difficult  to  detect  taints ;  indeed  during  the 
winter  when  milk  is  often  received  in  a  partly  frozen 
condition,  experts  may  be  unable  to  detect  faults  which 
become  quite  prominent  when  the  milk  is  heated  to  a 
temperature  of  100°  F.  or  above. 

Frequently  milk  is  seeded  with  undesirable  kinds  of 
bacteria  which  have  not  had  time  to  develop  sufficiently 
to  manifest  themselves  at  the  time  the  milk  is  delivered 
to  the  creamery,  but  which  later  in  the  course  of  cream 
ripening  produce  undesirable  flavors.  It  is  necessary, 
therefore,  in  making  a  thorough  examination  of  milk  to 
heat  it  to  a  temperature  of  from  95°  to  100°  F.  and  to 
keep  it  there  for  some  time  to  permit  a  vigorous  bacterial 
development.  Such  bacterial  development  can  be  carried 
on  in  what  is  known  as  the  Wisconsin  Curd  Test  and  the 
Gerber  fermentation  test. 

200 


DETECTION  OP  TAINTS  201 

WISCONSIN     CURD    TEST. 

This  test  originated  at  the  Wisconsin  Dairy  School. 
The  name  of  the  test  implies  that  the  samples  of  milk 
to  be  tested  are  curded,  which  is  accomplished  in  a  man- 
ner similar  to  that  in  which  milk  is  curded  for  cheese 
making. 

The  Wisconsin  Curd  Test  is  frequently  spOKen  01  as 
"fermentation  test,"  since  the  process  involved  consists  in 
fermenting  the  milk  by  holding  it  at  a  temperature  at 
which  the  bacterial  fermentations  go  on  most  rapidly. 

Apparatus.  This  consists  of  one  pint  cylindrical  tin 
cans  placed  in  a  tin  frame,  and  of  a  well  insulated  box 
made  so  that  the  tin  frame  will  nicely  slide  into  it.  Added 
to  this  is  a  case  knife,  and  a  small  pipette  used  to  measure 
rennet  extract. 

The  construction  of  the  box  and  the  position  of  the  cans 
inside  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  51.  This  box  consists  of 
three-eighths  inch  lumber,  the  inside  of  which  is  lined  with 
a  quarter  inch  thickness  of  felt.  Narrow  strips  are  tacked 
on  the  felt  and  tin  upon  these,  the  object  of  the  strips 
being  to  prevent  conduction  of  heat  by  contact  of  the  tin 
with  the  felt.  The  cover  of  the  box  is  constructed  in  the 
same  way  and  made  to  fit  tight.  This  construction  makes 
it  possible  to  maintain  a  nearly  constant  temperature  of 
the  samples  which  are  surrounded  by  water  as  shown  in 
the  illustration. 

Making  the  Test.  A  curd  or  fermentation  test  is  made 
at  the  creamery  by  selecting  from  each  patron  about  two- 
thirds  of  a  pint  of  milk  and  placing  this  in  the  tin  pint 
cans  after  they  have  been  thoroughly  sterilized.  Each 
pint  can  should  be  provided  with  a  sterilized  cover  which 
is  placed  upon  it  as  soon  as  the  sample  has  been  taken. 


202 


CREAMERY   BUTTER    MAKING 


The  sample  cans  are  next  placed  in  the  insulated  box 
provided  for  them.  Here  they  are  warmed  by  adding 
water  at  a  temperature  of  103°  F.  to  the  box,  a  tempera- 
ture which  should  be  maintained  throughout  the  whole 


test. 


WOOD  FE1UT     l_INiirsi 

Fig.  oh— Section  through  curd  test. 


With  a  sterile  thermometer  watch  the  rise  in  tempera- 
ture until  it  has  reached  86°  F.  when  10  drops  of  rennet 
extract  are  added  to  each  sample  and  mixed  with  it  for  a 
few  moments  with  a  sterile  case  knife.  This  knife  must 
be  sterilized  for  each  sample  to  avoid  transferring  bacteria 
from  one  can  to  another. 

As  soon  as  the  milk  has  curdled  it  is  sliced  with  the 
case  knife  to  permit  the  separation  of  the  whey.  After 
the  whey  has  been  separating  for  half  an  hour,  the  sam- 
ples should  be  examined  for  flavor,  which  can  be  told  far 
better  at  this  stage  than  is  possible  by  smelling  of  the  milk 
as  it  arrives  at  the  creamery. 

After  the  samples  have  all  been  carefully  examined, 
the  whey  is  poured  off  at  intervals  of  from  twenty  to 
forty  minutes  for  not  less  than  eight  hours.  At  the  end 


DETECTION  OP  TAINTS  203 

of  this  time  a  mass  of  curd  will  be  found  at  the  bottom 
of  the  can  in  which  there  has  been  a  vigorous  develop- 
ment of  bacteria  throughout  the  test. 

If  the  sample  of  milk  is  free  from  taint,  this  curd  when 
cut  with  a  knife  will  be  perfectly  smooth  and  close.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  sample  contains  gas  germs,  these 
in  course  of  eight  hours'  development  will  have  produced 
enough  gas  to  give  the  curd  an  open  spongy  appearance 
when  cut.  The  openings  are  usually  small  and  round, 
hence  the  name  "pin  holes"  has  been  applied  to  them  in- 
dicating holes  the  size  of  a  pin's  head. 

Whenever,  therefore,  milk  produces  a  curd  that  an- 
swers this  description  it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  it 
contains  undesirable  bacteria. 

Sometimes  the  milk  may  be  tainted  and  yet  produce  a 
close  textured  curd,  but  in  such  cases  the  taint  can  be 
detected  by  carefully  smelling  of  the  curd. 

Precautions.  In  making  a  test  as  above  outlined  two 
things  must  constantly  be  kept  in  mind:  first,  that  to  se- 
cure the  desired  bacterial  development,  the  temperature  of 
the  samples  must  be  maintained  as  nearly  as  possible  at 
98°  F.,  which  is  accomplished  by  surrounding  them  with 
water  at  a  temperature  of  103°  ;  second,  that  to  avoid  con- 
taminating one  sample  with  another,  the  knife  used  for 
mixing  the  rennet  with  the  milk  and  cutting  the  curd 
must  be  sterilized  for  each  can.  The  thermometer  used 
must  also  be  sterile. 

The  temperature  of  the  samples  can  easily  be  main- 
tained by  using  a  well  insulated  box  like  that  shown  in 
Fig.  51.  When  a  common  tin  box  is  used  it  becomes 
necessary  to  change  the  water  in  it  about  once  every  half 
hour. 


204  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

GERBER  FERMENTATION  TEST. 

This  test  is  simpler  than  the  Wisconsin  Curd  Test  and 
can  be  used  for  both  milk  and  cream.  Where  milk  need 
not  be  examined  specially  for  gas-producing  organisms, 
this  test  will  give  as  satisfactory  results  as  the  curd  test. 
The  essential  difference  between  the  two  tests  is  the  elim- 
ination of  rennet  extract  with  the  Gerber. 

Making  the  Test;  The  samples  of  milk  or  cream  are 
placed  in  glass  tubes  which  are  numbered  to  correspond 
with  the  names  of  the  patrons.  These  tubes  are  warmed 
in  a  tin  tank  containing  water  whose  temperature  is  main- 
tained at  104°  F.  throughout  the  test  by  placing  a  lamp 
under  the  tank.  At  the  end  of  about  six  hours  the  samples 
are  examined  for  flavor,  color,  taste  and  consistency.  After 
this  examination,  they  are  put  back  into  the  tank  to  be  re- 
examined  after  another  interval  of  about  six  hours.  Any 
"off"  condition  of  the  milk  or  cream  can  usually  be  told  at 
the  end  of  six  to  twelve  hours. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

MECHANICAL   REFRIGERATION. 

In  warm  climates  and  in  localities  where  ice  is  not 
obtainable  or  only  so  at  a  high  cost,  cold  may  be  produced 
by  artificial  means  known  as  mechanical  refrigeration. 
This  system  of  refrigeration  is  also  finding  its  way  into 
creameries  that  are  able  to  procure  ice  at  a  moderate  cost 
but  which  are  seeking  more  satisfactory  means  of  control- 
ling the  temperature  of  their  cream,  refrigerator,  make 
room,  etc. 

Refrigerating  Machines.  There  are  four  kinds  of 
machines  used  for  refrigerating  purposes:  (i)  vacuum 
machines  in  which  water  is  used  as  the  refrigerating 
medium;  (2)  absorption  machines  in  which  a  liquid  of  a 
low  boiling  point  is  used  as  the  refrigerating  medium,  the 
vapors  being  absorbed  by  water  and  again  separated  from 
it  by  distillation;  (3)  compression  machines  which  operate 
practically  the  same  as  the  absorption  machines  except 
that  the  vapors  in  this  case  are  compressed  instead  of 
absorbed;  and  (4)  mixed  absorption  and  compression  ma- 
chines. 

Most  of  the  machines  in  use  at  the  present  time 
belong  to  the  compression  type ;  the  following  discussion 
will  therefore  confine  itself  strictly  to  this  class  of 
machines. 

Principle.  The  principle  employed  in  mechanical  re- 
frigeration is  the  production  of  cold  by  the  evaporation 
of  liquids  which  have  a  low  boiling  point,  like  liquid 
ammonia,  liquid  carbonic  acid,  ether,  etc. 

205 


206 


CREAMERY   BUTTER   MAKING 


Fig.  52.— Showing  circulation  of  ammonia  in  mechanical  refrigeration. 


MECHANICAL  REFRIGERATION  207 

When  a  liquid  evaporates  or  changes  into  the  gaseous 
state  it  absorbs  a  definite  amount  of  heat  called  heat  of 
vaporization  or  "latent"  heat.  Thus  to  change  water  from 
212°  F.  to  steam  at  212°  F.  requires  a  considerable 
amount  of  heat  which  is  apparently  lost,  hence  the  term 
latent  (hidden)  heat. 

Ether  changes  into  its  gas  at  a  much  lower  temperature 
than  water  which  is  illustrated  by  its  instant  evaporation 
when  poured  upon  the  hand.  The  heat  of  the  hand  in  this 
case  is  sufficient  to  cause  vaporization  and  the  sensation 
of  cold  indicates  that  a  certain  amount  of  heat  has  been 
abstracted  from  the  hand  in  the  process. 

Manifestly  for  refrigerating  purposes  a  liquid  must  be 
used  that  can  be  evaporated  at  a  very  low  temperature; 
for  the  cold  in  mechanical  refrigeration  is  produced  by 
the  evaporation  of  the  liquid  in  iron  pipes,  the  heat  for 
the  purpose  being  absorbed  from  the  room  in  which  the 
pipes  are  laid.  Anhydrous  ammonia  has  thus  far  proven 
to  be  the  best  refrigerant  for  ordinary  refrigeration. 

Anhydrous  Ammonia  (Refrigerant).  This  substance 
is  a  gas  at  ordinary  temperatures  but  liquifies  at  30°  F. 
under  one  atmospheric  pressure.  In  practical  refrigera- 
tion the  ammonia  is  liquified  at  rather  high  temperatures 
by  subjecting  it  to  pressure.  The  ammonia  is  alternately 
evaporated  and  liquified  so  that  it  may  be  used  over  and 
over  again  almost  indefinitely. 

Circulation  of  Ammonia.  The  cycle  of  operations  in 
mechanical  refrigeration  is  as  follows :  The  liquid  am- 
monia starts  on  its  course  from  a  liquid  receiver,  and 
enters  the  refrigerating  coils  in  which  it  evaporates,  ab- 
sorbing a  large  amount  of  heat  in  the  process.  By  means 
of  a  compression  pump,  operated  by  an  engine,  the  am- 
monia vapors  are  forced  in  the  condenser  coils  where  the 


208  CREAMERY   BUTTER   MAKING 

ammonia,  under  pressure,  is  again  liquified  by  running 
cold  water  over  the  coils.  From  the  condenser  coils  it 
enters  the  liquid  receiver,  thence  again  on  its  journey 
through  the  refrigerating  coils. 

The  intensity  of  refrigeration  is  regulated  by  an  ex- 
pansion valve,  which  is  placed  between  the  liquid  receiver 
and  the  refrigerating  coils.  This  valve  may  be  adjusted 
so  as  to  admit  the  desired  quantity  of  liquid  ammonia  to 
the  coils. 

Systems  of  Refrigeration.  There  are  two  ways  in 
which  the  cooling  may  be  accomplished  by  mechanical 
refrigeration :  ( i )  by  evaporating  the  liquid  ammonia 
in  a  series  of  pipes  placed  in  the  room  to  be  refrigerated ; 
and  (2)  by  evaporating  the  liquid  ammonia  in  a  series  of 
coils  laid  in  a  tank  of  brine  and  forcing  the  cold  brine 
into  coils  laid  in  the  room  to  be  refrigerated.  The  former 
is  known  as  the  direct  expansion  system,  the  latter  as  the 
indirect  expansion  or  brine  system. 

Brine  System.  In  creameries  where  the  machinery  is 
run  only  five  or  six  hours  a  day  the  brine  system  is  the 
more  satisfactory  as  it  permits  the  storing  of  a  large 
amount  of  cold  in  the  brine,  which  may  be  drawn  upon 
when  the  machinery  is  not  running. 

The  brine  tank  is  preferably  located  near  the  ceiling  in 
the  refrigerator  where  it  will  serve  practically  the  same 
purpose  as  an  overhead  ice  box.  In  addition  to  this,  the 
refrigerator  should  contain  a  coil  of  direct  expansion 
pipes  which  may  be  used  when  extra  cold  is  desired. 

Brine  from  the  above  tank  may  be  used  for  cooling 
cream  by  conducting  it  through  coils  which  are  movable 
in  the  cream  vat ;  it  may  also  be  conducted  through  sta- 
tionary pipes  placed  in  the  make  room  for  the  purpose. 


MECHANICAL  RHPRIGERA  TIOS 


209 


of  controlling  the  temperature  during  the  warm  summer 
months. 

The  brine  is  kept  circulating  by  means  of  a  brine  pump. 

Strength  of  Brine.  The  brine  is  usually  made  from 
common  salt  (sodium  chloride).  The  stronger  the  brine 
the  lower  the  temperature  at  which  it  will  freeze.  Its 
strength  should  be  determined  by  the  lowest  temperature 
to  be  carried  in  the  brine  tank.  The  following  table  from 
Siebel  shows  the  freezing  temperature  as  well  as  the 
specific  heat  of  brine  of  different  strengths: 


Percentage  of  salt  by  weight. 

Pounds  of 
salt  per 
gallon  of 
solution. 

Freezing- 
point  (F.). 

Specific 
heat. 

1  

0.084 

30  5 

.992 

2  

0  169 

29  3 

9>'4 

3  

0  256 

27  8 

976 

4  

0.344 

26.6 

.968 

6  

0.523 

23.9 

.946 

8.         

0  708 

21  2 

919 

10  

0  897 

18  7 

892 

12  

1.092 

16.0 

.874 

15        

1  389 

12  2 

855 

20  

1.928 

6  1 

829 

25  

2.488 

0  5 

.783 

26  

2.610 

-1.1 

.771 

The  fact  that  the  specific  heat  grows  less  as  the  brine 
becomes  stronger  shows  it  to  be  wise  not  to  have  the 
solution  stronger  than  necessary,  because  the  less  the 
specific  heat  the  less  heat  a  given  amount  of  brine  is  able 
to  take  up. 

Refrigerating  Capacity.  When  speaking  of  a  machine 
of  one  ton  refrigerating  capacity,  we  mean  that  it  will 
produce,  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours,  the  amount 
of  cold  that  would  be  given  off  by  one  ton  of  ice  at  32°  F. 

14 


210  CREAMERY   BUTTER   MAKING 

melting  into  water  at  the  same  temperature.  Its  actual 
ice  making  capacity  is  usually  about  50%  less. 

Size  of  Compressor.  In  a  moderately  well  insulated 
creamery  handling  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  thousand 
pounds  of  milk  daily,  a  four-ton  compressor  will  be  large 
enough.  With  a  compressor  of  this  size  the  machinery 
will  not  have  to  be  run  more  than  five  or  six  hours  a  day. 
If  the  machinery  is  run  longer  than  this  a  smaller  com- 
pressor will  do  the  work. 

Power  Required  to  Operate.  The  power  required  per 
ton  of  refrigeration  is  less  the  larger  the  machine.  With 
a  four-ton  compressor  'the  power  required  is  from  two  to 
two  and  one-half  horse  power  per  ton  of  refrigerating 
capacity  in  twenty-four  hours. 

Refrigerating  Pipes.  The  refrigerating  pipes  vary 
from  one  to  two  inches  in  diameter.  With  moderately 
good  insulation  it  is  estimated  that  by  the  direct  expansion 
system  one  running  foot  of  two-inch  piping  will  keep  a 
room  of  forty  cubic  feet  content  at  a  temperature  of  32° 
F.  With  brine  nearly  twice  this  amount  of  piping  would 
be  necessary. 

For  cooling  the  brine  in  the  brine  tank,  about  140  feet 
of  1 1/\ -inch  pipes  are  required  per  ton  of  refrigerating 
capacity. 

Expense  of  Operating.  When  a  refrigerating  plant 
has  once  been  installed  and  charged  with  the  necessary 
ammonia,  the  principal  expense  connected  with  it  will  be 
the  power  required  to  operate  the  compressor.  This 
power  in  a  creamery  is  supplied  by  the  creamery  engine. 
The  ammonia,  being  used  over  and  over  again,  will  add 
but  a  trifle  to  the  running  expenses.  Nor  can  the  water 
used  for  cooling  the  ammonia  vapors  add  much  to  the 
cost  of  operating.  It  is  true,  however,  that  the  refrigera- 


MECHANICAL  REFRIGERATION  211 

ting  plant  will  require  some  of  the  butter  maker's  time 
and  attention,  but  this  is  probably  no  more  than  would  be 
consumed  in  the  handling  of  ice  in  the  creamery. 

Charging  and  Operating  an  Ammonia  Plant.  This 
subject  is  so  ably  discussed  in  The  Engineer  by  H.  H. 
Kelley  that  the  author  feels  he  can  do  no  better  than 
present  the  following  extracts  from  that  article. 

"When  about  to  start  an  ice  or  refrigerating  plant,  the 
first  thing  necessary  is  to  see  that  the  system  is  charged 
with  the  proper  amount  of  ammonia.  Before  the  ammonia 
is  put  in,  however,  all  air  and  moisture  must  be  removed ; 
otherwise  the  efficiency  of  the  system  will  be  seriously 
interfered  with.  Special  valves  are  usually  provided  for 
discharging  the  air,  which  is  removed  from  the  system 
by  starting  the  compressor  and  pumping  the  air  out,  the 
operation  of  the  gas  cylinder  being  just  the  reverse  of  that 
when  it  is  working  ammonia  gas.  It  is  practically  impos- 
sible to  get  all  the  air  out  of  the  entire  system  by  this 
means,  so  that  some  other  course  must  be  taken  to  remove 
any  remaining  air  after  the  compressor  has  been  started  at 
regular  work.  This  can  be  accomplished  by  admitting  the 
ammonia  a  little  at  a  time,  permitting  the  air  to  escape 
through  a  purge  valve,  the  air  being  thus  expelled  by  dis- 
placement. The  cylinder  containing  the  anhydrous  am- 
monia is  connected  to  the  charging  valve  by  a  suitable 
pipe,  and  the  valve  opened.  The  compressor  is  then  kept 
running  slowly  with  the  suction  and  discharge  valves  wide 
open  and  the  expansion  valve  closed.  When  one  cylinder 
is  emptied  put  another  in  its  place,  being  careful  to  close 
the  charging  valve  before  attempting  to  remove  the  empty 
cylinder,  opening  it  when  the  fresh. cylinder  is  connected 
up. 

"From  sixty  to  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  full  charge  is 


212  CREAMERY   BUTTER   MAKING 

sufficient  to  start  with  so  that  the  air  may  have  an  oppor- 
tunity of  escaping  with  as  little  loss  of  ammonia  as  possi- 
ble. An  additional  quantity  of  ammonia  may  then  be  put 
in  each  day  until  the  full  charge  has  been  introduced. 
When  the  ammonia  cylinders  have  been  emptied  and  a 
charge  of,  say,  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  full  amount  has 
been  introduced,  the  charging  valve  is  closed  and  the  ex- 
pansion valve  opened.  The  glass  gauge  on  the  ammonia 
receiver  will  indicate  the  depth  of  ammonia.  The  appear- 
ance of  frost  on  the  pipe  leading  to  the  coils  and  the 
cooling  of  the  brine  in  the  tank  will  indicate  that  enough 
ammonia  has  been  introduced  to  start  with.  It  is  some- 
times difficult  to  completely  empty  an  ammonia  cylinder 
without  first  applying  heat.  The  process  of  cooling  being 
the  same  when  the  ammonia  expands  from  the  cylinder 
into  the  system  as  when  leaving  the  expansion  valve,  a 
low  temperature  is  produced  and  the  cylinder  and  con- 
nections become  covered  with  frost.  When  this  occurs  the 
cylinder  must  be  slightly  warmed  in  order  to  be  able  to 
get  all  the  ammonia  out  of  it.  The  ammonia  cylinders, 
when  filled,  should  never  be  subjected  to  rough  handling 
and  are  preferably  kept  in  a  cool  place  free  from  any  lia- 
bility to  accident.  The  fact  that  ammonia  is  soluble  in 
water  should  be  well  understood  by  persons  charging  a 
refrigerating  system,  or  working  about  the  plant.  One 
part  of  water  will  absorb  about  800  parts  of  ammonia  gas 
and  in  case  of  accident  to  the  ammonia  piping  or  machine, 
water  should  be  employed  to  absorb  the  escaping  gas. 
Persons  employed  about  a  plant  of  this  kind  should  be 
provided  with  some  style  of  respirator,  the  simplest  form 
of  which  is  a  wet  cloth  held  over  the  mouth  and  nose. 

"After  starting  the  compressor  at  the  proper  speed  and 
adjusting  the  regulating  valve  note  the  temperature  of 


MECHANICAL  REFRIGERATION  213 

the  delivery  pipe,  and  if  there  is  a  tendency  to  heat  open 
it  wider,  and  vice  versa.  This  valve  should  be  carefully 
regulated  until  the  temperature  of  the  delivery  pipe  is 
practically  the  same  as  the  water  discharged  from  the 
ammonia  condenser.  With  too  light  a  charge  of  am- 
monia the  delivery  pipe  will  become  heated  even  when 
the  regulating  valve  is  wide  open.  As  a  general  thing 
when  the  plant  is  working  properly  the  temperature  of 
the  refrigerator  is  about  15°  lower  than  the  brine  being 
used,  the  temperature  of  the  water  discharged  from  the 
ammonia  condenser  will  be  about  15°  lower  than  that  of 
the  condenser,  the  pointers  on  the  gauges  will  vibrate  the 
same  distance  at  each  stroke  of  the  compressor  and  the 
frost  on  the  pipes  entering  and  leaving  the  refrigerator 
will  be  about  the  same.  By  placing  the  ear  close  to  the 
expansion  valve  the  ammonia  can  be  heard  passing 
through  it,  the  sound  being  uniform  and  continuous  when 
everything  is  working  properly. 

"When  air  is  present  the  flow  of  ammonia  will  be  more 
or  less  intermittent,  which  irregularity  is  generally  notice- 
able through  a  change  in  the  usual  sound  heard  at  the  ex- 
pansion valve.  The  pressure  in  the  condenser  will  also  be 
higher  and  the  effect  of  the  apparatus  as  a  whole  will 
be  changed,  and,  of  course,  not  so  good.  These  changes 
will  be  quickly  noticed  by  a  person  accustomed  to  the 
conditions  obtaining  when  everything  is  in  order  and 
working  properly. 

"The  removal  of  air  is  accomplished  in  practically  the 
same  manner  as  when  charging  the  system,  permitting 
it  to  escape  through  the  purging  valve  a  little  at  a  time 
so  as  not  to  lose  any  more  gas  than  is  absolutely  necessary. 

"The  presence  of  oil  or  water  in  the  system  is  generally 
detected  by  shocks  occurring  in  the  compressor  cylinder. 


214  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

"In  nearly  all  plants  the  presence  of  oil  in  the  system  of 
piping  is  unavoidable.  The  oil  used  for  lubricating  pur- 
poses, especially  at  the  piston  rod  stuffing  boxes,  works 
into  the  cylinders  and  is  carried  with  the  hot  gas  into  the 
ammonia  piping,  where  it  never  fails  to  cause  trouble. 
The  method  of  removing  the  air  from  the  system  has 
already  been  referred  to,  but  the  removal  of  oil  is  accomp- 
lished by  means  of  an  oil  separator.  This  is  placed  in 
the  main  pipe  between  the  compressor  and  the  condenser, 
and  is  of  about  the  size  of  the  ammonia  receiver.  Some- 
times another  oil  separator  is  placed  in  the  return  pipe 
close  to  the  compressor,  which  serves  to  eliminate  any 
remaining  oil  in  the  warmer  gas  and  to  remove  pieces  of 
scale  and  other  foreign  matter  which,  if  permitted  to  enter 
the  compressor  cylinder,  would  tend  to  destroy  it  in  a 
very  short  time. 

"The  oil,  which  always  gets  into  the  system  sooner  or 
later  and  in  greater  or  less  quantity,  depending  upon  the 
care  exercised  to  avoid  it,  acts  as  an  insulator  and  pre- 
vents the  rapid  transfer  of  heat  from  the  ammonia  to  the 
pipe  that  ought  to  obtain,  and  also  occupies  considerable 
space  that  is  required  for  the  ammonia  where  the  best  re- 
sults are  to  be  obtained/' 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

CREAMERY  BOOK-KEEPING. 

The  object  of  book-keeping  is  to  keep  a  record  of  busi- 
ness transactions,  enabling  the  proprietor  or  proprietors 
at  any  time  to  determine  the  true  condition  of  the  business. 

In  most  businesses  usually  one  of  two  forms  of  book- 
keeping is  followed :  either  double  entry  which  makes  use 
of  three  books — day  book,  journal,  and  ledger — or  single 
entry  which  makes  use  of  only  two  books,  a  day  book  or 
journal,  and  ledger. 

The  day  book  contains  a  detailed  record  of  business 
transactions.  Entries  are  made  in  this  book  as  soon  as 
the  transaction  occurs. 

The  journal  contains  the  debits  and  credits  arranged 
in  convenient  form  for  transferring  to  the  ledger. 

The  ledger  contains  the  final  results. 

Debits  and  Credits.  These  words  are  usually  abbre- 
viated Dr.  and  Cr.  respectively.  The  debits  and  credits  in 
any  business  transaction  are  determined  by  the  following 
rule :  debit  whatever  costs  value;  credit  whatever  pro- 
duces value.  In  a  journal  entry  the  sum  of  the  debits  and 
the  sum  of  the  credits  must  be  equal. 

Double  and  Single  Entry  Book=keeping.  Wl^ile 
double  entry  is  the  most  complete  form  of  keeping  a  busi- 
ness record,  it  entails  too  much  work  for  creameries, 
which  have  but  a  limited  time  to  devote  to  keeping  books. 

Single  entry  book-keeping  when  properly  carried  out 
has  proved  very  satisfactory  and  most  creameries  follow 
this  method  in  a  more  or  less  modified  form. 

215 


216 


CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 


In  the  following  pages  a  simple  and  approved  method  of 
book-keeping  is  presented  which  may  be  followed  by  any 
creamery  whether  proprietary,  co-operative,  or  otherwise. 
In  this  method  the  following  books  and  papers  are  made 
use  of: 

(i)  Day  book,  (2)  order  book,  (3)  sales  book,  (4) 
cash  book,  (5)  pay  roll  register,  (6)  ledger,  (7)  milk 
sheet,  (8)  milk  book,  (9)  test  book,  and  (10)  butter  slips. 

Day  Book.  All  transactions  made  at  the  creamery 
should  be  at  once  recorded  in  the  day  book.  At  the  close 
of  the  day  or  at  some  convenient  time  the  records  made  in 
the  day  book  are  transferred  to  the  order  book,  sales  book, 
or  cash  book,  according  to  the  transaction.  The  following 
examples  illustrate  the  manner  of  making  records  in  the 
day  book. 

January  6,  1900. 


Sold  to  J.  D.   Steele   &    Co.  on  account 
1  100  Ibs   of  butter  @  24c  

$264 

00 

Bought  of  Newman  &  Co.,  for  cash,  1  san- 
itary milk  pump  

$20 

00 

5  gal.  butter  color  @  $1.70  

8 

50 

20  gal.  separator  oil  @  20c  

4 

00 

32 

50 

Bought    of    H.    Chandler  on    account  11 
cords  of  wood  @  $3.00  

33 

00 

When  payment  is  made  for  goods  at  the  time  the 
transaction  occurs  the  term  "for  cash"  is  used.  When 
payment  is  made  some  time  after  the  transaction  occurs 
the  term  "on  account"  is  used. 


CREAMERY  BOOK-KEEPING 


217 


Order  and  Sales  Books.    All  purchases  and  sales  are 
i  ecorded  in  the  manner  illustrated  below : 


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218  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

Cash  Book.      Cash  book  records  are  illustrated  below : 

CASH  BOOK 


Date. 

1898. 


Cash  received. 


Mar.  1 

# 

Balance  

From  Feb  

$181 

00 

"    10 

4 

Butter  

Willson  &  Co  

180 

00 

44   14 

4 

Willson  &  Co 

208 

00 

44   20 

5 

M 

Nicholson  &  Fish 

374 

50 

"   24 

5 

tt 

Willson  &  Son 

249 

90 

4'    24 

5 

u 

Nicholson  &  Fish 

139 

80 

44    28 

(S 

tt 

Willson  &  Son  

201 

00 

'•'    28 

5 

tt 

J.  C.  R.  &  Co 

10 

10 

"    30 

5 

tt 

Nicholson  &  Fish 

848 

38 

$2,392 

68 

*  Sales  book  Page, 
—(monthly  record). 

Date, 

1898. 

Cash  paid. 

Mar.  U 

§  fi 

Butter  tubs  

Thorbin  &  Son  

$90 

00 

44    11 

ft 

Tinning  

Paul  Burger  

3 

00 

44    18 

7 

Butter  printer. 

R.  S.  D.  &Co  

20 

00 

"   24 

7 

Cleaning  po'der 

R  S  D  &  Co  .   ..   . 

11 

00 

44   27 
44    27 

7 
7 

Boiler  repair.  .  . 
Salary 

J.  R.  Smith  &  Co  

Jotui  Srnifh 

14 
95 

00 
00 

41    28 

7 

Wood 

W    Saunders 

55 

oo 

"    29 

7 

Sundries  

John  Jones  

4 

35 

44    31 

7 

Patrons     .  .  . 

Monthly  dues  

1  902 

48 

4'    31 

7 

Balance  

To  new  account  ...  . 

197 

85 

$2  399 

68 

§  Order  book  page. 


CREAMERY  BOOK-KEEPING 


219 


Pay  Roll  Register.    Each  patron's  monthly  account  is 
recorded  in  the  pay  roll  register  as  illustrated  below : 


PAY    ROLL    REGISTER. 


^ 

+z 

u 

<i> 

o 

8 

Date, 
189S. 

Numb 

Name. 

1 

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EH 

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0 

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April  5 

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John  Smith    .     ... 

7  850 

S  Q 

306  15 

$0  20 

$61  23 

$1  48 

$59  75 

123V 

"      5 

2 

Paul  Wirth    

4,575 

4.0 

183.00 

20 

36  60 

36  60 

124V 

V  Means  paid. 

The  Ledger.  Where  a  good,  permanent,  and  easily 
accessible  record  is  desirable,  the  main  items  of  all  trans- 
actions should  be  posted  under  suitable  heads  in  the 
ledger.  Where  there  is  liable  to  be  a  frequent  change  of 
bookkeepers  the  additional  work  involved  in  keeping  a 
ledger  is  well  justified. 

In  case  monthly  payments  are  made  at  the  creamery  all 
accounts  should  be  closed  once  a  month  and  those  with 
different  individuals  should  be  kept  separate.  The  fol- 
lowing illustrates  a  ledger  account  with  a  butter  firm  in 
New  York. 


Dr. 


John  Johnson  &  Co. 


Or. 


1898. 


New  York  City. 


Sept  3 

Balance 

*12 

$90  40 

Sept  6 

Check 

fl-1 

$80  35 

"     7 

Sale  . 

12 

103  38 

"      18 

Check 

14 

139  85 

"    20 

Sale 

13 

84  50 

"     31 

Balance 

14 

58  08 

Oct.    1 

Balance  

13 

58  08 

*  Sales  book  page. 


1  Cash  book  page. 


220 


CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 


Below  is  illustrated  a  ledger  account  with  a  creamery 
supply  house  in  Chicago : 


Dr. 


J.  D.  Murray  &  Co. 


Cr 


Chicago. 


Aug.  4 

Check  

*15 

$29  00 

Aug.    1 

Balance.  .. 

116 

$18  50 

"    11 

Check  

15 

64  50 

"        5 

Order. 

16 

70  38 

"    31 

Balance  .   .  . 

15 

19  38 

"      19 

Order  

16 

24  00 

Sept.  1 

Balance  — 

16 

19  38 

*  Cash  book  page . 


1  Order  book  page. 


The  following  illustrates  a  ledger  record  with  a  patron 
of  the  creamery : 


Dr. 


William  Sampson. 


Cr. 


1898. 


Pike  town 


August 

SI 

Check 

$61  50 

August 

Milk 

$61  50 

*18 

Sept. 

31 

Check  

83  92 

Sept. 

Milk.  

83  92 

19 

*  Pay  roll  register  page. 

Milk  Sheet  and  Milk  Book.  Immediately  after  milk 
is  weighed  it  is  recorded  upon  a  milk  sheet  placed  in  the 
intake.  This  sheet  consists  of  heavy  paper  with  the  date, 
name,  and  number  of  the  patron  upon  it.  The  names 
should  be  arranged  in  alphabetical  order.  A  suitable  milk 
sheet  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  53- 

Where  care  is  taken  in  recording  the  milk  upon  the 
milk  sheet,  the  milk  book  may  be  dispensed  with.  In 
that  case  a  record  of  the  milk  is  preserved  by  filing  the 
milk  sheets  after  each  patron's  total  has  been  transferred 


CREAMERY  BOOK-KEEPING 


221 


to  the  pay  roll  register.  In  case,  however,  a  careful  daily 
record  of  the  milk  is  to  be  preserved,  it  is  better  to  copy 
the  milk  from  the  milk  sheet  into  a  milk  book  in  which 
a  record  may  be  preserved  for  a  long  time. 


Fig.  53.— Milk  sheet. 

Test  Book.  A  permanent  record  of  milk  tests  is  made 
in  the  test  book.  The  following  illustrates  the  method  of 
keeping  such  a  record : 


222 


CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 


Patron's  name. 
1898. 

Arenz,  J.  P. 

«3 

H 

1 

m 

Test  No  

1 

2 

Date—  Aug.   7  

3  8 

4  3 

««     15  

3  9 

4  3 

44     23,.  ..  . 

3  8 

4  1 

Butter  Slips.  It  is  customary  with  creamery  patrons 
to  take  the  butter  for  their  use  at  the  creamery  and  have 
the  value  of  it  deducted  from  their  check.  If  all  butter 
thus  taken  were  to  be  recorded  in  the  day  book  and  from 
this  transferred  to  a  patron's  butter  book,  it  would  involve 
a  great  deal  of  labor  for  the  butter  maker.  Hence  the  use 
of  butter  slips.  These  are  small  slips  of  paper  on  which 
the  small  butter  accounts  are  kept  until  the  close  of  the 
month.  Below  is  illustrated  one  of  these  slips : 


BUTTER    SLIP. 


DATE. 


NAME. 


LBS. 


Oz. 


CREAMERY  BOOK-KEEPING  223 

The  butter  slips  are  all  placed  on  file  until  the  close  of 
the  month  when  each  patron's  total  butter  charged  to  him 
is  found  from  these  slips.  The  charge  thus  found  is 
entered  directly  in  the  column  marked  "charge"  in  the 
pay  roll  register,  while  the  slips  are  preserved  for  future 
reference. 


CHAPTER   XXV. 

CO-OPERATIVE  CREAMERIES. 

i.  Co-operative  Creameries.  There  are  two  distinct 
classes  of  creameries  in  existence  at  the  present  time, 
(i)  Those  owned  and  operated  by  private  individuals, 
called  proprietary  creameries;  (2)  those  owned  and  oper- 
ated by  the  patrons,  known  as  co-operative  creameries. 

Most  of  the  creameries  built  at  the  present  time  belong 
to  the  co-operative  type.  This  is  the  ideal  plan  upon 
which  creameries  should  be  built  and  operated  and  it  has 
in  most  cases  proved  successful. 

Methods  of  Organizing  Cooperative  Creameries. 
Too  frequently  co-operative  creameries  are  established 
by  so-called  "promoters,"  whose  aim  is  to  make  money  for 
themselves  by  taxing  the  farmers  a  thousand  dollars  or 
more  in  excess  of  the  actual  cost  of  the  creamery. 

If  a  community  of  farmers  is  interested  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  creamery,  the  following  method  of  organiz- 
ing should  be  pursued : 

1.  Let  those  most  interested  in  the  project  make  a 
thorough  canvass  of  the  milk  producers  in  that  community 
to  ascertain  the  number  of  cows  available.    There  should 
not  be  less  than  400  cows  to  start  with. 

2.  If  the  desired  number  of  cows  is  available,  the  next 
step  is  to  secure  a  subscription  of  $4,500  by  selling  shares 
for  that  amount.    This  sum  of  money  is  necessary  to  build 
and  equip  a  substantial  fire  proof  creamery  containing  all 
the  modern  creamery  machinery.     Where  possible  it  is 

224 


CO-OPERATIVE  CREAMERIES  225 

desirable  to  sell  shares  only  to  prospective  creamery 
patrons,  so  that  the  creamery  may  be  a  truly  co-operative 
one. 

3.  When  the  necessary  funds  have  been  subscribed, 
call  a  meeting  of  the  shareholders  to  elect  a  president, 
secretary,  treasurer,  manager,  and  a  board  of  directors 
which  should  consist  of  the  president,  secretary,  treasurer, 
and  at  least  three  other  shareholders. 

4.  The  next  step  is  to  specify  a  certain  time  within 
which  all  subscriptions  must  be  paid.    The  money  is  pref- 
erably turned  over  to  a  reliable  banker  in  the  form  of 
notes  bearing  interest. 

5.  The  treasurer  should  be  authorized  to  draw  upon 
the  bank  for  the  money  thus  deposited  whenever  occasion 
demands,  but  he  should  be  required  to  give  security  for 
the  money  that  comes  into  his  hands. 

6.  When  all  subscriptions  have  been  paid,  a  meeting 
of  the  board  of  directors  should  be  called  for  the  purpose 
of  hiring  a  butter  maker  who  shall  not  only  be  able  to 
make  a  first  class  article  of  butter,  but  who  shall  also  be 
competent  to  plan  and  superintend  the  construction  of  the 
creamery.    This  is  a  point  which  most  co-operative  cream- 
eries overlook.     The  result  is  there  are  dozens  of  cream- 
eries scattered  all  over  the  country  which  are  faulty  in 
both  design  and  construction. 

Before  drawing  up  his  plans  it  would  be  policy  for 
the  butter  maker  to  visit  several  up-to-date  creameries  so 
as  to  get  the  latest  ideas  on  creamery  construction. 

7.  The  creamery  is  paid  for  out  of  a  sinking  fund 
created  by  charging  the  patrons,  in  addition  to  the  charge 
necessary  to  cover  running  expenses,  say  one  cent  for 
every  pound  of  butter  fat  delivered  until  the  creamery 
is  paid  for. 

15 


226  CREAMERY   BUTTER   MAKING 

8.  After  the  creamery  is  paid  for,  there  should  be 
an  annual  dividend  declared  to  the  shareholders  as  inter- 
est on  their  investment. 

9.  A  sufficient  sinking  fund  must  be  maintained  to 
cover  the  -annual  dividend  and  the  running  expenses,  by 
charging  from  two  to  three  cents  for  every  pound  of 
butter  fat  delivered. 

Management  of  Cooperative  Creameries.  Too  fre- 
quently the  management  of  co-operative  creameries  is 
placed  in  the  hands  of  persons  who  know  little  or  nothing 
about  creamery  matters.  Perhaps  more  co-operative 
creamery  failures  can  be  traced  to  this  cause  than  to  any 
other. 

The  stockholders  of  co-operative  creameries  should 
select  a  manager  and  managing  board  who  are  familiar 
with  the  details  of  the  business  they  are  going  to  manage. 
Advice  should  freely  be  sought  from  the  butter  maker 
who  in  most  cases  is  the  best  posted  man  to  govern  the 
affairs  of  the  creamery. 

2.  Cooperation  of  Butter  maker  and  Patron.  The 
relationship  of  butter  maker  and  patron  should  be  one  of 
mutual  interest — a  business  relationship.  Butter  making 
is  a  business  and,  as  such,  should  be  governed  by  business 
principles. 

The  butter  maker,  then,  besides  being  able  to  make  a 
fine  quality  of  butter,  must  be  a  business  man,  dealing  as 
he  does  with  farmers,  bankers,  merchants,  mechanics,  and 
others.  He  must  be  honest,  tactful,  and  full  of  enterprise. 

Too  frequently  self-interest  figures  too  conspicuously  in 
the  management  of  creamery  affairs.  This  can  not  help 
but  result,  sooner  or  later,  in  the  ruination  of  the  business. 

The  butter  maker  has,  and  must  have,  certain  rights 
which,  if  rightly  asserted,  can  not  help  but  be  productive 


CO-OPERATIVE  CREAMERIES  227 

of  much  good.  If  used  otherwise,  these  rights  will  create 
enmity  and  become  a  damage  to  the  creamery.  For  exam- 
ple, a  butter  maker  has  a  right  to  demand  of  his  patrons 
good  clean  milk,  but  he  can  not  attain  his  object  by 
repeatedly  sending  back  milk  that  is  not  right.  Tactfully 
explaining  the  evils  resulting  from  unclean  milk,  giving 
the  probable  cause,  and  manifesting  a  willingness  to  visit 
his  premises,  will  accomplish  very  much  more  in  reform- 
ing the  patron. 

Greeting  the  patrons  with  a  smile  and  a  "good  morn- 
ing" inspires  confidence.  Accuracy  in  sampling,  weighing 
and  testing,  a  clean  person  and  clean  surroundings,  are 
things  that  merit  more  than  ordinary  attention. 

The  best  way  for  butter  makers  to  get  along  with  their 
patrons  is  to  help  them  in  every  way  they  can.  They 
should  act  as  educators  of  their  patrons  in  their  respective 
communities.  No  person  has  a  greater  opportunity  for 
doing  good  in  his  community  than  the  butter  maker. 

A  few  printed  instructions  to  patrons  occasionally  can 
not  fail  to  be  productive  of  much  good,  both  to  the  patron 
and  to  the  butter  maker.  The  following  may  be  con- 
sidered as  sample  instructions : 

1.  Get  cows  that  are  purely  dairy  animals.    Cows  that 
have  a  tendency  to  lay  on  flesh  while  giving  milk  are  not 
the  most  profitable  for  the  dairy.     A  milch  cow  should 
convert  her  food  into  milk,  not  into  flesh.     Such  a  cow 
you  will  generally  find  a  spare,  lean  looking  animal. 

2.  Do  not  be  afraid  to  invest  $100  in  a  good  sire  of 
some  good  dairy  breed  to  head  your  herd.     See  to  it 
that  this  sire  is  a  descendant  of  prolific  milkers,  and  that 
he  has  good  breeding  qualities. 

3.  Feed  liberally.     Remember  that   about  sixty  per 
cent  of  what  a  cow  can  eat  and  properly  assimilate  is 


228  CREAMERY   BUTTER   MAKING 

required  for  her  maintenance;  that  which  is  fed  beyond 
this  is  utilized  for  the  production  of  milk  if  the  cow  is 
a  purely  milk-producing  animal.  Hence  the  wisdom  of 
feeding  a  cow  to  her  full  capacity. 

4.  Do  not  feed  just  one  kind  of  feed.     Variety  of 
feeds  is  essential  in  economical  feeding. 

5.  Feed  liberally  of  concentrated  feeds  like  bran  and 
oil  meal,  especially  during  scarcity  of  pasturage. 

6.  Do  not  be  afraid  to  invest  $16  in  a  ton  of  bran, 
for  its  value  to  you  as  a  fertilizer  alone  is  $11. 

7.  Always  milk  your  cows  at  the  same  time  morning 
and  evening.    Regularity  in  milking  means  more  milk. 

8.  Do  not  change  milkers,  and  insist  that  the  milkers 
treat  the  cows  gently. 

9.  Always  thoroughly  cool  night's  milk  by  placing  it 
in  cold  water  and  stirring  it  frequently. 

10.  Do  not  allow  the  calves  to  suckle  the  cows  more 
than  three  days  after  calving. 

11.  Always  add  a  few  tablespoonfuls  of  oil  meal  or 
cooked  flax  seed  to  the  skim-milk  "before  feeding  it  to 
your  calves. 

12.  Grow  a  liberal  supply  of  clover  and  peas,  for  these 
produce  a  liberal  flow  of  milk,  at  the  same  time  enrich- 
ing the  soil. 

13.  Grow  an  abundance  of  corn  and  ensilo  it.    It  may 
prove  your  most  economical  feed. 

14.  Never  place  your  milk  cans  in  the  barn  while 
milking  for  the  barn  odors  will  taint  the  milk. 

15.  Do  not  bed  or  feed  your  cows,  or  in  any  way  dis- 
turb the  barn  dust,  while  milking. 

1 6.  Always  provide  your  cows  with  a  liberal  supply 
of  salt  and  pure  water.    Never  allow  them  to  drink  stag- 
nant water. 


CO-OPBRATIVB  CREAMERIES  229 

17.  Bring  samples  of  milk  from  the  individual  cows 
of  your  herd  for  testing.     It  will  cost  you  nothing,  but 
it  may  be  of  great  value  to  you. 

1 8.  A  sample  consisting  of  a  portion  (i  oz.)  of  the 
night's  and  morning's  milk  is  necessary  for  a  test.  Always 
thoroughly  mix  milk  before  sampling. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

HANDLING   OF    MILK   AND   CREAM    AT   THE   FARM. 

This  is  a  subject  which  vitally  affects  the  success  of 
every  creamery,  and  one  in  which  patrons  have  hitherto 
had  too  little  instruction.  A  great  deal  of  the  poor  milk 
and  cream  produced  at  the  present  time  is  the  result  of 
ignorance.  Buttermakers  and  creamery  managers  should 
see  to  it  that  their  patrons  are  thoroughly  instructed  in 
all  that  pertains  'to  the  correct  management  of  milk  and 
cream  at  the  farm. 

THE   DAIRY    HOUSE. 

All  creamery  patrons  must  have  a  small  dairy  house 
in  order  to  properly  care  for  their  milk,  cream  and  milk 
vessels.  The  added  convenience  which  such  a  house 
affords  ought  to  be  some  inducement  toward  getting  one. 
A  dairy  house  is  especially  important  for  cream  patrons: 

Location  and  Construction.  In  selecting  a  site  for  a 
dairy  house,  convenience  and  sanitation  should  be  given 
first  consideration.  A  well-drained  spot,  free  from  rub- 
bish and  bad  odors  and  within  reasonable  distance  from 
the  barn  and  well,  should  be  selected. 

In  the  construction  of  a  dairy  house  sanitary  features 
should  be  made  paramount.  The  floor  should  be  built 
of  concrete,  and  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  lower  four  or 
six  feet  of  the  wall  finished  with  cement.  Indeed  it  is  a 
distinct  advantage  to  have  the  entire  walls  covered  with 
hard  finish  of  some  kind  to  make  them  readily  cleanable. 

230 


MILK  AND  CREAM  AT  FARM  231 

The  ceiling  should  he  about  10  feet  high  and  made  of  well 
matched  ceiling  lumber.  A  ventilating  shaft  should  ex- 
tend from  the  middle  of  the  ceiling  to  the  top  of  the  roof 
to  carry  off  vapors  and  impure  air. 

Essentially  .the  same  plan  of  construction  may  be  fol- 
lowed as  that  outlined  for  the  construction  of  the  cream- 
ery. 

Equipment.  For  those  furnishing  milk,  the  equipment 
should  consist  of  a  cooler,  cooling  tank,  water  heater,  and 
wash  sinks.  When  cream  is  sold,  a  cream  separator,  some 
form  of  power,  and  preferably  an  ice  box,  are  added  to 
the  equipment  needed  for  milk. 

COOUNG  MILK  AND  CREAM. 

Importance  of  Low  Temperature.  Milk  always  con- 
tains bacteria  no  matter  how  cleanly  the  conditions  under 
which  it  is  drawn.  At  ordinary  temperatures  these  bac- 
teria increase  with  marvelous  rapidity ;  at  low  tempera- 
tures their  growth  practically  ceases.  The  effect  of  tem- 
perature on  bacterial  development  is  graphically  shown 
in  Fig.  54.  At  a  temperature  of  50°  F.  the  bacteria  mul- 
tiplied five  times ;  at  70°  F.  they  multiplied  seven  hundred 
and  fifty  times. 

Roughly  speaking,  at  98°  F.  bacteria  multiply  one  hun- 
dred times  faster  than  70°  F.  At  32°  F.  bacterial  devel- 
opment practically  ceases. 

Milk  or  cream  may  be  kept  sweet  a  long  time  at  40° 
to  45°  F.  because  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  practically  stop 
growing  at  these  temperatures.  But  there  are  other 
classes  of  bacteria  that  can  grow  at  these  temperatures, 
as  evidenced  by  the  production  of  urrdesirable  flavors. 


232  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

Such  flavors  usually  become  noticeable  after  thirty-six 
hours.  That  bad  flavors  occur  at  these  low  temperatures 
should  be  sufficient  reason  for  making  frequent  deliveries 
of  cream. 

Prompt  Cooling.    Immediately  after  the  milk  is  drawn, 
it  should   be  removed   from  the  barn  to  a  clean,  pure 


b 


Fig.  54.— Relation  of  temperature  to  bacterial  growth. 

a  represents  a  single  bacterium;  ft,  its  progeny  in  twenty-four  hours  in 
milk  kept  at  50°  F.;  c,  its  progeny  in  twenty-four  hours  in  milk  kept  at  70°  F. 
(Bui.  2d,  Storrs,  Conn.) 

atmosphere  where  it  is  aerated  and  cooled  by  using  coolers 
like  those  shown  in  Figs.  55  and  56.  The  ordinary  method 
of  cooling  milk  and  cream  in  five  and  ten  gallon  cans  is 
too  slow  for  best  results. 

Cone=Shaped  Cooler.  For  small  and  medium  sized 
dairies  a  cheap  cooler  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  55  may  be 
used  to  advantage.  The  water  enters  at  the  bottom  of 
the  cooler  and  discharges  at  the  top,  while  the  milk  flows 
in  a  thin  sheet  over  the  outside.  Ice  may  be  placed  inside 
the  cooler,  if  desired.  The  can  at  the  top  is  the  milk  re- 


MILK  AND  CREAM  AT  FARM 


233 


ceiver,  which  has  small  openings  at  the  bottom  near  the 
outside,  through  which  the  milk  discharges  in  fine  streams 
directly  upon  the  cone  below. 

Corrugated  Cooler.  For  large  dairies  a  cooler  like 
that  shown  in  Fig.  56  answers  very  satisfactorily.  An 
elevated  barrel  is  connected  with  the  cooler  and  filled  with 


Fig.  55.— Cone-shaped  cooler. 


Fig.  56.— Corrugated  cooler. 


cold  water  which  circulates,  between  the  two  surfaces  of 
the  cooler,  the  milk  and  cream  flowing  over  the  outside. 
An  ice  water  attachment  may  be  added  to  -the  cooler  if 
desired,  or  ice  may  be  added  to  the  water  in  the  barrel. 
Both  the  cone-shaped  and  corrugated  coolers  permit 
cooling  to  within  a  few  degrees  of  the  temperature  of 
the  water  used,  and  also  give  milk  and  cream  sufficient 
aeration. 


HOW  TO  SECURE  HOT  WATER. 

Where  no  steam  is  available,  the  best  means  of  pro 
curing   hot   water   is   the   apparatus   shown    in    Fig.    57. 


234 


CRHAMBRV   BUTTER   MAKING 


The  rot  water  tank  is  that  commonly  used  in  residences 
for  heating  water  for  the  bath  tub  and  can  be  obtained 
from  plumbers  for  about  $7.00.  Any  stove  in  which 
iron  coils  can  be  heated  will  answer  as  a  heater. 


VTATER 


Fig.  57.— Cheap  arrangement  for  securing  hot  water. 

After  the  milk  vessels  have  been  thoroughly  washed, 
.they   should   be   placed   in   boiling  water   for  about  five 
minutes  and  then  inverted  upon  clean  shelves.    For  details 
of  washing  see  chapter  on  Washing  and  Sterilizing. 


POWER  ON   THE)  FARM. 


The  use  of  some  form  of  power  upon  dairy  farms  has 
frequently  been  recommended  in  the  past,  but  never  before 
has  its  use  been  more  urgent  than  at  the  present  time. 
The  increasing  scarcity  of  labor,  the  rapid  increase  of 


MILK  AND  CREAM  AT  FARM  235 

hand  separators,  and  the  general  convenience  it  affords, 
have  made  power  an  actual  necessity  upon  progressive 
dairy  farms. 

The  kind  of  power  needed  upon  a  dairy  farm  depends 
upon  certain  conditions.  If  a  tread  power  is  used  for 
exercising  the  bull,  this  will  serve  satisfactorily  for  sep- 
arating milk,  pumping  water,  and  doing  other  light  work. 
In  recent  years  gasoline  engines  have  become  very  popu- 
lar. A  two  horse  power  engine  will  serve  very  satisfac- 
torily for  running  the  cream  separator,  pumping  water 
and  doing  other  light  work  such  as  running  the  wash 
machine,  grindstone,  etc. 

Power  not  only  affords  great  convenience  upon  a  farm 
but  will  also  curtail  the  running  expenses. 

If,  for  example,  we  assume  that  one  hour  is  required 
daily  in  running  the  separator,  and  another  in  pumping 
water  for  stock,  the  total  time  consumed  in  this  work  in 
one  year  would  be  730  hours,  or  73  days  of  10  hours  each. 
At  $i  a  day,  the  cost  of  separating  and  pumping  would 
amount  to  $73  a  year.  With  a  gasoline  engine  running 
the  pump  and  separator  at  the  same  time,  this  work  could 
be  done  in  365  hours.  Allowing  6c  per  hour  for  gasoline 
and  oil,  which  is  a  high  estimate,  the  cost  of  doing  the 
above  work  with  an  engine  would  be  $21.90,  or  less  than 
one-third  of  what  it  can  be  done  for  with  hired  labor. 
This  saving  is  equivalent  to  about  25  per  cent,  on  the  in- 
vestment of  the  engine,  if  used  for  no  other  purpose  than 
separating  milk  and  pumping  water. 

The  fuel  cost  of  running  a  gasoline  engine  may  be 
stated  as  follows :  When  gasoline  is  worth  loc  per  gallon, 
gasoline  power  will  cost  ic  per  brake  horse  power  per 
hour. 


236 


CREAMERY   BUTTER   MAKING 


FASTENING  THE  SEPARATOR. 


To  secure  steady  motion,  the  separator  must  be  fastened 
to  a  solid  foundation.  There  is  nothing  better  in  this  re- 
spect than  a  concrete  floor  with  which  every  dairy  should 
be  provided. 


Fig.  58.— Method  of  fastening  separator. 

There  are  two  common  methods  of  fastening  a  sepa- 
rator to  a  concrete  floor :  One  is  to  fasten  two  4x4~inch 
blocks  into  the  concrete  floor  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  58.  The 
separator  is  then  fastened  to  these  blocks  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  to  a  wood  floor.  The  other  method  of  fastening 
consists  in  chiseling  four  conical  holes  into  the  concrete 
floor,  at  a  distance  corresponding  with  the  four  holes  in 
the  separator  base.  The  cavities  thus  made  are  filled  with 
Babbitt  metal,  into  which  holes  a  little  smaller  than  the  lag 
screws  are  drilled.  The  separator  is  then  fastened  by 
turning  the  lag  screws  into  the  Babbitt.  (See  Fig.  59.) 

The  Babbitt  may  be  dispensed  with  by  fastening  the 
bolts  with  cement  as  shown  in  Fig.  59. 


MILK  AND  CREAM  AT  FARM 


237 


MANAGEMENT    OF    SEPARATOR. 

This  subject  is  fully  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  Cream- 
ing. What  is  said  there  of  power  machines  applies 
equally  to  hand  separators. 

Farmers  should  be  cautioned  against  using  any  but  the 
best  grade  of  hand  separator  oil.  They  should  also  be 
taught  the  importance  of  cleaning  the  separator  after  each 
use. 


Pig.  59.— Methods  of  fastening  separator. 
ADVANTAGES   OF   RICH    CREAM. 

To  separate  a  rich  cream  at  the  farm  results  in  mutual 
benefit  to  producer  and  manufacturer.  The  main  advan- 
tages are  as  follows:  (i)  Less  bulk  to  handle;  (2)  less 
cream  to  cool;  (3)  less  transportation  charges;  (4)  more 
skimmilk  for  the  farmer ;  ( 5 )  better  keeping  quality ; 
(6)  allows  more  starter  to  be  added;  (7)  gives  better 
results  in  churning,  and  (8)  makes  pasteurization  easier, 
especially  with  sour  cream. 


238 


CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 


Too  rich  a  cream  must  be  avoided,  however,  since  this 
sticks  too  much  to  the  cream  vessels ;  40%  is  about  the 
right  richness. 


JT&G.  BOARDS 
1"  STRIPS- 
PAPER  - 
GALV   IRON — . 


Fig.  60.  —A  cross  section  of  ice  box. 


MILK  AN  Q  CREAM  AT  FARM  239 


VALUE:  OF  AN  ICE  HOUSE. 

Where  cream  can  not  be  delivered  daily,  ice  is  in- 
dispensable in  keeping  it  in  satisfactory  condition.  In 
addition  to  cooling  milk  and  cream,  ice  can  be  employed  to 
good  advantage  in  several  other  ways.  Its  value  in  the 
household  in  preserving  meats,  vegetables  and  fruits  can 
not  be  overestimated.  And  what  is  so  refreshing  as  cold 
drinks  and  frozen  desserts  during  the  summer  months  ! 
Ice  is  also  frequently  necessary  in  case  of  sickness.  Care- 
ful study  will  show  that  these  advantages  will  far  more 
than  offset  the  small  cost  of  laying  in  a  store  of  ice. 
For  further  particulars  regarding  ice  and  the  construction 
of  ice  houses,  see  chapter  on  Ice  House  and  Refrigerator. 

A   CHEAP   ICE   BOX. 

A  simple,  cheap,  and  effective  ice  box  for  keeping  milk 
and  cream  cold  is  shown  in  Fig.  60.  This  box  was  de- 
signed by  the  author  and  has  been  in  successful  use  for 
nearly  two  years.  It  consists  essentially  of  two  boxes 
separated  by  one-inch  strips,  placed  at  intervals  of  about 
one  foot.  Double  thickness  of  building  paper  is  placed  on 
both  sides  of  the  strips  and  tacked  to  the  boxes.  The  in- 
side is  lined  with  galvanized  iron. 

Three-quarter  inch  tongued  and  grooved  lumber  is 
used  in  the  construction  of  the  sides,  bottom  and  cover, 
while  the  ends  are  built  of  one  and  one-eighth  inch 
tongued  and  grooved  flooring,  three  and  one-half  inches 
wide.  A  heavy  weight  attached  to  a  one-half  inch  rope 
running  over  a  pulley  fastened  to  the  ceiling,  raises  the 
cover  and  holds  it  open  when  desired.  ' 

A  short  piece  of  gas  pipe  is  inserted  through  the  bottom 


240  CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 

of  the  box  to  provide  drainage,  the  outlet  of  this  pipe 
being  connected  with  a  trap  to  prevent  entrance  of  air 
into  the  box. 

The  total  cost  of  the  ice  box  used  by  the  author  was 
$27.40,  including  labor.  The  inside  dimensions  of  this 
box  are:  Length,  7  1-3  feet;  width,  2  1-4  feet;  depth, 
21-3  feet.  A  box  half  the  size  of  this  would  answer  for 
the  average  sized  dairy. 

CLEAN     MILK. 

This  is  the  basis  of  high  quality  in  all  dairy  products. 
The  method  of  securing  clean,  sanitary  milk  is  fully  dis- 
cussed in  the  following  chapter. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

SANITARY    MILK   PRODUCTION. 

Sanitary  Milk  Defined.  Sanitary  milk  is  milk  from 
healthy  cows,  produced  and  handled  under  conditions  in 
which  contamination  from  filth,  bad  odors,  and  bacteria, 
is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Importance  of  Sanitary  Milk.  The  production  of 
clean,  pure  milk  is  one  of  the  most  important  subjects 
which  confronts  buttermakers  at  the  present  time.  Fur- 
ther improvements  in  the  quality  of  butter  must  largely 
be  sought  in  the  use  of  cleaner  milk. 

No  matter  how  skillful  a  buttermaker  may  be,  he  can 
not  produce  the  highest  quality  of  butter  from  milk  of 
inferior  quality.  Skill  may  do  much  to  improve  quality 
but  it  can  never  make  perfection  out  of  imperfection.  It 
should,  therefore,  be  as  much  a  duty  of  the  butter  maker 
to  keep  his  patrons  properly  instructed  in  the  care  and 
handling  of  milk  as  it  is  to  keep  himself  posted  on  the 
latest  and  most  approved  methods  of  making  butter. 

The  Necessary  Conditions  for  the  production  of  sani- 
tary milk  are  as  follows:  (i)  Healthy  cows;  (2)  sani- 
tary barn;  (3)  clean  barn  yard;  (4)  clean  cows;  (5) 
clean  milkers;  (6)  clean  milk  vessels;  (7)  clean,  whole- 
some feed;  (8)  pure  water;  (9)  clean  strainers;  (10) 
dust- free  stable  air;  (n)  clean  bedding;  (12)  milking 
with  dry  hands;  (13)  thorough  cooling  of  milk  after 
milking;  (14)  sanitary  milk  room. 

Healthy  Cows.  The  health  of  the  cow  is  of  prime  im- 
portance in  the  production  of  sanitary  milk.  All  milk 

16  241 


242  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

from  cows  affected  with  contagious  diseases  should  be 
rigidly  excluded  from  the  dairy.  Aside  from  the  general 
unfitness  of  such  milk  there  is  danger  of  the  disease  pro- 
ducing organisms  getting  into  the  milk.  It  has  been 
found,  for  example,  that  cows  whose  udders  are  affected 
with  tuberculosis,  yield  milk  containing  these  organisms. 
The  prevalence  of  this  disease  among  cows  at  present 
makes  it  imperative  to  determine  definitely  whether  or 
not  cows  are  affected  with  the  disease,  by  the  application 
of  the  tuberculin  test. 

Any  feverish  condition  of  the  cow  tends  to  impart  a 
feverish  odor  to  the  milk,  which  should  therefore  not  be 
used.  Especially  important  is  it  that  milk  from  diseased 
udders,  no  matter  what  the  character  of  the  disease,  be 
discarded. 

Sanitary  Barn.  Light,  ventilation,  and  ease  of  clean- 
ing ar%  essential  to  a  sanitary  dairy  barn.  The  disinfect- 
ant action  of  an  abundance  of  sunlight,  secured  by  pro- 
viding a  large  number  of  windows,  is  of  the  highest  im- 
portance. 

Of  equal  importance  is  a  clean,  pure  atmosphere,  secur- 
ed by  a  continuous  ventilating  system.  The  fact  that 
odors  of  any  description  are  absorbed  by  milk  with  great 
avidity,  sufficiently  emphasises  the  great  need  of  pure  air. 

To  permit  of  easy  cleaning,  the  barn  floors  and  gutters 
should  be  built  of  concrete.  They  should  be  scrubbed 
daily,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  walls  and 
ceiling  free  from  dust  and  cobwebs.  The  feed  boxes  must 
also  be  cleaned  after  each  feed. 

The  stalls  should  be  of  the  simplest  construction,  to 
afford  as  little  chance  for  lodgement  of  dust  as  possible. 
Furthermore,  they  should  so  fit  the  cows  as  to  cause  the 
latter  to  stand  with  their  hind  feet  on  the  edge  of  the  gut- 


SANITARY    MILK    PRODUCTION  243 

ter,  a  matter  of  the  highest  importance  in  keeping  cows 
clean. 

The  walls  and  ceiling  should  be  as  smooth  as  possible. 
Moreover,  they  should  be  frequently  disinfected  by  means 
of  a  coat  of  whitewash.  The  latter  gives  the  barn  a 
striking  sanitary  appearance. 

Clean  Barn  Yard.  A  clean,  well  drained  barn  yard  is 
an  essential  factor  in  the  production  of  sanitary  milk. 
Where  cows  are  obliged  to  wade  in  mire  and  filth,  it  is 
easy  to  foretell  what  the  quality  of  the  milk  will  be.  To 
secure  a  good  barn  yard  it  must  be  covered  with  gravel 
or  cinders,  and  should  slope  away  from  the  barn.  If  the 
manure  is  not  taken  directly  from  the  stable  to  the  fields, 
it  should  be  placed  where  the  cows  cannot  have  access 
to  it. 

Clean  Cows.  Where  the  barn  and  barn-yard  are  sani- 
tary, cows  may  be  expected  to  be  reasonably  clean.  Yet 
cows  that  are  apparently  clean,  may  still  be  the  means  of 
infecting  milk  to  no  small  degree.  When  we  consider 
that  every  dust  particle  and  every  hair  that  drops  into 
the  milk  may  add  hundreds,  thousands,  or  even  millions 
of  bacteria  to  it,  we  realize  the  importance  of  taking  every 
precaution  to  guard  against  contamination  from  this 
source. 

To  keep  cows  as  free  as  possible  from  loose  hair  and 
dust  particles  they  should  be  carded  and  brushed  regu- 
larly once  a  day.  This  should  be  done  after  milking  to 
avoid  dust.  Five  to  ten  minutes  before  the  cow  is  milked 
her  udder  and  flanks  should  be  gently  washed  with  clean, 
tepid  water,  by  using  a  clean  sponge  or  cloth.  This  will 
allow  sufficient  time  for  any  adhering  drops  of  water  to 
drip  off,  at  the  same  time  it  will  keep  the  udder  and  flanks 
sufficiently  moist  to  prevent  dislodgment  of  dust  particles 


244  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

and  hairs  at  milking  time.  This  practically  means  that 
the  milker  must  always  have  one  or  two  cows  washed 
ahead.  He  should  be  careful  to  wash  his  hands  in  clean 
water  after  each  washing. 

Under  ordinary  conditions  the  cow  is  the  greatest 
source  of  milk  contamination.  The  rubbing  of  the  milker 
against  her  and  the  shaking  of  the  udder  will  dislodge 
numerous  dust  particles  and  hairs  unless  the  foregoing 
instructions  are  rigidly  followed. 

Attention  should  also  be  given  to  the  cow's  switch, 
which  should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean.  The  usual 
switching  during  milking  is  no  small  matter  in  the  con- 
tamination of  milk  when  the  switch  is  not  clean. 

Clean  Milkers.  Clothes  which  have  been  worn  in  the 
fields  are  not  suitable  for  milking  purposes.  Every  milker 
should  be  provided  with  a  clean,  white  milking  suit,  con- 
sisting of  cap,  jacket  and  trousers.  Such  clothes  can  be 
bought  ready  made  for  one  dollar;  and,  if  frequently 
laundered,  will  materially  aid  in  securing  clean  milk. 


Fig.  61.    Unflushed  seam.  Fig.  62.   Flushed  seam. 

Milkers  should  also  wash  and  dry  their  hands  before 
milking,  and,  above  all,  should  keep  them  dry  during 
milking. 

Clean  Vessels.     All  utensils  used  in  the  handling  of 


SANITARY    MILK    PRODUCTION  245 

milk  should  be  made  of  good  tin,  with  as  few  seams  as 
possible.  Wherever  seams  occur,  they  should  be  flushed 
with  solder.  Unflushed  seams  are  difficult  to  clean,  and, 
as  a  rule,  afford  good  breeding  places  for  bacteria.  Fig. 
6 1  illustrates  the  character  of  the  unflushed  seam ;  Fig.  62 
shows  a  flushed  seam,  which  fully  illustrates  its  value. 

Fig.  63  illustrates  a  modern  sanitary  milk  pail.  The 
value  of  a  partially  closed  pail  is  evident  from  the  re- 
duced opening,  which  serves  to  keep  out  many  of  the 
micro-organisms  that  otherwise  drop  into  the  pail  during 


Fig.  63.    Sanitary  Milk  Pail. 

milking.  While  such  a  pail  is  somewhat  more  difficult 
to  clean  than  the  ordinary  open  pail,  it  is  believed  that 
the  reduced  contamination  during  milking  far  outweighs 
this  disadvantage. 

All  utensils  used  in  the  handling  of  milk  should  be  as 
nearly  sterile  as  possible.  A  very  desirable  method  of 
cleaning  them  is  as  follows: 

First,  rinse  with  warm  or  cold  water.     Second,  scrub 


246  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

with  moderately  hot  water  containing  some  sal  soda* 
The  washing  should  be  done  with  brushes  rather  than 
cloth  because  the  bristles  enter  into  any  crevices  present 
which  the  cloth  cannot  possibly  reach.  Furthermore,  it 
is  very  difficult  to  keep  the  cloth  clean.  Third,  scald 
thoroughly  with  steam  or  hot  water,  after  rinsing  out  the 
water  in  which  the  sal  soda  was  used.  After  scalding, 
the  utensils  should  be  inverted  on  the  shelves  without 
wiping  and  allowed  to  remain  in  this  place  until  ready 
to  use.  This  will  leave  the  vessels  in  a  practically  sterile 
condition.  Fourth,  if  it  is  possible  to  turn  the  inside  of 
the  vessels  to  the  sun,  in  a  place  where  there  is  no  dust, 
then  it  is  desirable  to  expose  the  utensils  during  the  day 
to  the  strong  germicidal  action  of  the  direct  sun's  rays. 

Clean,  Wholesome  Feed.  Highly  fermented  and 
aromated  feeds,  like  sour  brewers  grains  and  leeks  should 
be  rigidly  withheld  from  dairy  cows  when  anything  like 
good  flavored  milk  is  sought.  So  readily  does  milk 
absorb  the  odors  of  feeds  through  the  system  of  the  ani- 
mal, that  even  good  corn  silage,  when  fed  just  previous 
to  milking,  will  leave  its  odor  in  the  milk.  When  fed 
after  milking,  however,  no  objection  whatever  can  be 
raised  against  corn  silage  because  not  a  trace  of  its  odors 
is  then  found  in  the  milk.  Aromatic  feeds  of  any  kind 
should  always  be  fed  after  milking. 

Pure  Water.  Since  feeds  are  known  to  transmit  their 
odors  to  the  milk  through  the  cow,  it  is  reasonable  to  ex- 
pect water  to  do  the  same.  Cows  should,  therefore,  never 
be  permitted  to  drink  anything  but  pure,  clean-flavored 
water.  The  need  of  pure  water  is  further  evident  from 
the  fact  that  it  enters  so  largely  -into  the  composition  of 
milk. 


SANITARY    MILK    PRODUCTION  247 

The  water  of  ponds  and  stagnant  streams  is  especially 
dangerous.  Not  only  is  such  water  injurious  to  the  health 
of  cows,  but  in  wading  into  it,  they  become  contaminated 
with  numerous  undesirable  bacteria,  some  of  which  may 
later  find  their  way  into  the  milk. 

Strainers  and  Straining.  Milk  should  be  drawn  so 
clean  as  to  make  it  almost  unnecessary  to  strain  it.  This 
operation  is  frequently  done  under  the  delusion  that  so 
long  as  it  removes  all  visible  dirt  the  milk  has  been 
entirely  purified.  The  real  harm,  however,  that  comes 
from  hairs  and  dust  particles  dropping  into  the  milk  is 
not  so  much  in  the  hairs  and  dust  particles  themselves 
as  in  the  millions  of  bacteria  which  they  carry  with  them. 
These  bacteria  are  so  small  that  no  method  of  straining 
will  remove  them.  Straining  can  not  even  remove  all 
of  the  dirt,  because  some  of  it  will  go  in  solution. 

A  good  strainer  consists  of  two  thicknesses  of  cheese 
cloth  with  a  layer  of  absorbent  cotton  between.  The 
strainer  is  to  be  placed  on  the  can  or  vat  into  which  the 
milk  is  to  be  strained  and  not  on  the  milk  pail.  While 
a  strainer  like  the  above  placed  upon  the  milk  pail,  reduces 
the  bacterial  content  slightly  in  the  hands  of  careful  milk- 
ers, it  is  believed  that  the  slight  advantage  gained  would 
be  more  than  off-set  by  greater  carelessness  in  milking; 
especially  might  this  be  true  with  ignorant  milkers  who 
are  apt  to  think  that  the  strainer  will  make  up  for  any 
carelessness  on  their  part.  A  cheese  cloth  strainer  on 
the  milk  pail  is  worse  than  useless  with  any  kind  of 
milker. 

New  sterilized  cotton  must  be  used  at  each  milking 
and  the  cloths  must  be  thoroughly  washed  and  sterilized. 
Like  the  cotton,  it  is  best  to  use  the  cloth  but  once, 

Dust=Free  Air.    Great  precaution  should  be  taken  not 


248  CREAMERY  BUTTHR  MAKING 

to  create  any  dust  in  the  stable  about  milking  time,  for 
this  is  certain  to  find  its  way  into  the  milk.  Cows  should, 
therefore,  never  be  bedded  or  receive  any  dusty  feed  just 
before  or  during  milking. 

Dry  roughage,  such  as  hay  and  corn  fodder,  always 
contains  a  considerable  amount  of  dust,  and  when  fed 
before  or  during  milking  may  so  charge  the  air  with  dust 
as  to  make  clean  milk  an  impossibility. 

Moistening  the  floor  and  walls  with  clean  water  pre- 
vious to  milking  materially  minimizes  the  danger  of  get- 
ting dust  into  the  milk.  A  mistake  not  infrequently  made 
even  in  the  better  class  of  dairies  is  to  card  and  brush  the 
cows  just  before  milking.  While  this  results  in  cleaner 
cows,  the  advantage  thus  gained  is  far  more  than  off- 
set by  the  dirtier  air,  which,  as  will  be  shown  later, 
materially  increases  the  germ  content  of  the  milk.  The 
carding  and  brushing  should  be  done  at  least  thirty  min- 
utes before  the  milking  commences. 

Clean  Bedding.  Clean  shavings  and  clean  cut  straw 
should  preferably  be  used  for  bedding.  Cows  stepping 
and  lying  on  dirty  bedding  will  soil  themselves  and  create 
a  dusty  barn  air. 

Milking  With  Dry  Hands;  A  prolific  source  of 
milk  contamination  is  the  milking  with  wet  hands.  Where 
the  milker  wets  his  hands  with  milk,  some  of  it  is  bound 
to  drip  into  the  pail,  carrying  with  it  thousands  or  mil- 
lions of  bacteria,  depending  upon  the  degree  of  cleanliness 
of  the  milker's  hands  and  the  cow's  udder.  There  is  no 
excuse  for  the  filthy  practice  of  wet  milking,  since  it 
is  just  as  easy  to  milk  with  dry  hands. 

Fore=Milk.  Where  the  purest  milk  is  sought,  it  is  de- 
sirable to  reject  the  first  stream  or  two  from  each  teat, 
as  this  contains  many  thousands  of  bacteria.  The  reason 


SANITARY    MILK    PRODUCTION  249 

for  this  rich  development  of  germs  is  found  in  the  favor- 
able conditions  provided  by  the  milk  in  the  milk-ducts  of 
the  teats,  to  which  the  bacteria  find  ready  access. 

Flies.  Flies  not  only  constitute  a  prolific  but  also  a 
dangerous  source  of  milk  contamination.  These  pests 
visit  places  of  the  worst  description  and  their  presence 
in  a  dairy  suggests  a  disregard  for  cleanliness.  Of  414 
flies  examined  by  the  'Bacteriologist  of  the  Connecticut 
Station,  the  average  number  of  bacteria  carried  per  fly 
was  one  and  a  quarter  millions.  Flies  should  be  rigidly 
excluded  from  all  places  where  they  are  apt  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  milk. 

Experimental  Data.  To  show  to  what  extent  the 
bacterial  content  of  milk  may  be  reduced  by  adopting 
the  precautions  suggested  in  the  foregoing  pages,  a  few 
experimental  data  are  herewith  presented. 

In  Bulletin  No.  42  of  the  Storrs  (Conn.)  Experiment 
Station,  Stocking  reports  the  following: 

1.  When  the  cows  were  milked  before  feeding  the 
number  of  bacteria  per  c.  c.  was  1,233;  when  milked  im- 
mediately after  feeding,  the  number  of  bacteria  was  3,656, 
or  three  times  as  many. 

2.  When  the  udder  and  flanks  of  the  cows  were  wiped 
with  a  damp  cloth,  the  number  of  bacteria  per  c.  c.  was 
716;  when  not  wiped  the  number  was  7,058,  or  ten  times 
as  great. 

3.  When  the  cows  were  not  brushed  just  before  milk- 
ing the  number  of  bacteria  per  c.  c.  was  1,207;  when 
brushed  just  before  milking,  the  number  was  2,286,  or 
nearly  twice  as  great. 

4.  When  students  who  had  studied  the  production  of 
clean  milk  did  the  milking,  the  number  of  bacteria  per 
&.  c.  was  914;  when  the  milking  was  done  by  regular 


250 


CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 


unskilled  milkers  the  number  of  bacteria  was  2,846,  or 
three  times  as  great. 

Wiping  or  washing  udders  before  milking  not  only 
very  materially  reduces  the  bacterial  content  of  the  milk, 
but  also  lessens  the  amount  of  dirt  to  a  very  great  extent. 
Frazer  has  shown  that  "the  average  weight  of  dirt  which 
falls  from  muddy  udders  during  milking  is  ninety  times 
as  great  as  that  which  falls  from  the  same  udder  after 
washing,  and  when  the  udder  is  slightly  soiled  it  is 
eighteen  times  as  great." 


Fig.  64.—  Clean  Milking,    (From  Da,  Div.,  U,  S.  Dept,  of  A,) 


CHAPTER    XXVIII. 

TRANSPORTATION      OF     CREAM. 

The  two  essentials  in  successful  cream  transportation 
are   cleanliness  and  low   temperature.     It   is  possible  to 


Fig.  65.— Milk  can.  Fig.  66.— Screw  to  can. 

keep  cream  in  good  condition  for  two  days,  if  produced 
and  handled  under  cleanly  conditions  and  cooled  directly 
after  milking  to  50°  F.  or  below.  This  low  temperature 

251 


252  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

must  be  maintained  when  long  keeping  quality  is  desired. 
Cans.  Various  insulated  cans  are  now  upon  the 
market  and  a  number  of  these  have  been  tested  by  the 
author.  The  tests  showed  that  these  cans  possess  about 
the  same  insulating  effect  as  the  felt  jackets  that  are 
commonly  wrapped  around  ordinary  milk  cans.  The 
latter,  as  a  rule,  are  preferred  on  account  of  their  greater 
ease  of  handling.  The  insulated  cans,  however,  have  an 
advantage  in  the  extra  cover  inside, 
which  can  be  pushed  to  the  top  of  the 
cream,  thus  preventing  it  from  churn- 
ing when  the  cans  are  only  partially 
filled. 

Hauling  Cream.  In  gathering 
cream  the  most  satisfactory  results 
are  secured  by  providing  a  separate 
can  for  each  patron.  The  driver 
starts  out  with  a  load  of  clean,  empty 

Fig.  67.-Felt  jacket.      ^    which    replace    those  picked   up 

along  the  route.  This  method  gives  the  buttermaker 
an  opportunity  to  examine  each  patron's  cream,  leaves 
in  his  hands  the  important  matter  of  sampling  and 
weighing  and  also  insures  clean  cans  for  the  patrons. 

Where  there  are  too  many  small  producers  the  above 
plan  has  the  objection  of  requiring  too  many  cans  for 
the  amount  of  cream  collected.  With  producers  of  this 
kind  the  common  method  is  to  weigh  and  sample  the 
cream  at  the  farm  and  empty  the  same  in  large  collecting 
cans.  Where  the  patrons'  cream  is  hauled  to  the  cream- 
ery in  separate  cans,  the  latter  must  bear,  upon  brass 
plates,  either  the  patrons'  names  or  numbers  corresponding 
to  the  names. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  CRHAM  253 

Skimming  Station  Cream.  In  many  localities  where 
there  is  not  sufficient  milk  to  warrant  the  establishment 
of  a  creamery,  skimming  stations  have  been  built  which 
separate  the  cream  from  the  milk  and  deliver  it  to  a 
creamery  for  churning.  Hundreds  of  such  stations  are 
scattered  throughout  the  country  and  they  are  serving 
a  most  useful  purpose.  The  cream  from  such  stations 
should  be  delivered  to  the  creamery  daily. 

Shipping  Cream.      In  shipping  cream,  have  the  name 

and  address  of  the 
patron  permanently 
marked  in  brass  up- 
on both  can  and 
cover;  also  have  it 
sewed  or  stitched  on 
the  felt  jackets.  This 
is  necessary  to  insure 
the  return  of  your 

Fig.  68.-Lead  seal  and  seal  press.  own  goods.  The  name 

and  address  will  be  put  upon  the  cans  and  covers  by  the 
dealer  from  whom  they  are  purchased,  if  so  requested; 
or,  in  case  unmarked  cans  are  already  on  the  premises, 
the  brass  plates  with  the  name  and  address  may  be  pur- 
chased from  dairy  supply  firms  and  placed  upon  the  cans 
and  covers  by  a  local  tinner. 

The  empty  cans  should  be  washed  before  they  are  re- 
turned. This  should  be  done  for  sanitary  reasons  as  well 
as  for  the  protection  of  the  cans,  which  are  short-lived 
unless  washed  and  dried  immediately  after  use. 

Another  matter  of  importance  in  shipping  is  to  have 
the  cans  full  to  prevent  churning. 

Jt  is  necessary  also  to  have  the  cans  sealed  to  prevent 


254  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING- 

tampering  with  the  contents.  The  sealing  is  easily  ac- 
complished by  means  of  lead  seals  and  a  seal  press  (Fig. 
68). 

Care  of  Cream  During  Transportation.  During  the 
summer  months  a  great  deal  of  cream  is  damaged  while 
in  transit  to  the  creamery.  If  the  cream  is  collected  in 
wagons,  the  latter  should  be  covered  and  provided  with 
springs.  The  cans  should  be  wrapped  in  felt  jackets. 
When  no  jackets  are  used,  the  cans  must  be  covered  with 
heavy  blankets.  Too  many  precautions  can  not  be  taken 
to  protect  the  cream  from  either  very  high  or  very  low 
outside  temperatures. 

The  felt  jackets  are  also  desirable  in  shipping  cream. 
Especially  important  is  this  where  the  cream  is  left  ex- 
posed to  the  hot  rays  of  the  sun  at  the  station  platform, 
a  matter  of  no  unusual  occurrence. 

Mode  of  Shipping.  The  usual  way  of  shipping  milk 
and  cream  is  by  express.  In  the  main  dairy  sections 
baggage  rates  are  available.  These  rates  are  lower  than 
express  rates  and  can  be  obtained  nearly  everywhere  by 
special  arrangement  with  the  railroad  companies. 

Shipping  rates  should  always  be  obtained  in  advance 
of  shipment  and  the  charges  should  be  prepaid.  A  con- 
siderable saving  is  certain  to  be  effected  by  rigidly  ad- 
hering to  this  practice.  Insist  upon  getting  the  lowest 
rates  possible. 

Frequency  of  Delivering  Cream.  To  save  cost  in 
transportation,  a  practice  that  has  been  altogether  too  com- 
mon is  to  deliver  cream  only  once,  twice,  or  three  times  a 
week,  when  in  no  case  it  should  be  delivered  fewer  than 
four  times  a  week.  Indeed,  it  is  well  known  that  the 
best  butter  is  possible  only  when  the  cream  is  delivered 
daily. 


TRANSPORTATION  OP  CREAM  255 

It  is,  of  course,  entirely  possible  to  so  cool  cream  as 
to  keep  it  sweet  for  two  days,  but  cream  that  has  been 
kept  cold  this  length  of  time  invariably  develops  a  more  or 
less  off-flavor.  This  is  due  to  the  development  of  certain 
classes  of  bacteria  which  are  capable  of  growing  at  tem- 
peratures at  which  the  growth  of  the  lactic  acid  organ- 
isms is  entirely  checked. 

The  greatest  defect  in  the  gathered  cream  system  of 
buttermaking  today  is  the  too  infrequent  delivery  of  the 
cream. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 
WATER  SUPPLY  FOR  FARM  AND  CREAMERY. 

WATER    SUPPLY    FOR    FARM. 

Importance  of  Pure  Water.  A  great  deal  of  disease 
in  farm  homes  is  directly  traceable  to  infected  water. 
Typhoid  fever  especially  is  so  frequently  caused  by  pol- 
luted well  water  that  physicians  at  once  look  to  this  as 
the  probable  cause  wherever  this  disease  is  found  to  ex- 
ist. 

Where  wells  infected  with  disease  germs  happen  to 
exist  on  dairy  farms,  disease  is  not  limited  to  the  dairy- 
man's own  family,  but  may  spread  through  the  products 
of  the  creamery.  Many  typhoid  fever  epidemics  have 
been  positively  traced  to  milk  which  has  become  infected 
through  water  containing  the  disease  germs.  Nowhere 
is  pure  water  so  important,  therefore,  as  upon  dairy 
farms. 

The  disease  germs  usually  find  their  wray  into  the  milk 
through  milk  vessels  which  have  been  washed  with  in- 
fected water.  The  use  of  such  water  for  washing  cows' 
udders  previous  to  milking  may  also  be  the  means  of 
infecting  the  milk  supply. 

Construction  of  Well.  In  a  properly  constructed 
well,  no  water  should  enter  it  except  near  the  bottom. 
This  compels  the  water  to  pass  through  a  thickness  of 
earth  sufficient  to  purify  it  where  the  wells  are  of  a 
reasonable  depth. 

Where  there  is  no  rock  or  hard  clay  and  where  the 
water  can  be  had  at  a  reasonable  depth,  the  driven  well, 

256 


WATER  SUPPLY 


257 


commonly  known  as  the  Abyssinian  tube  well,  is  the 
cheapest  and  one  of  the  safest.  This  well  is  made  by 
driving  into  the  ground  a  water-tight  iron  tube,  the  lower 
end  of  which  is  pointed  and  perforated. 

In  case  rocks  and  hard  clay  must  be  penetrated,  or 
great  depth  must  be  reached  to  secure  water,  the  bored  or 
drilled  well,  piped  from  top  to  bottom  with  water-tight 
iron  pipes,  will  be  found  most  satisfactory. 


Fig.  68.— Soil  strata.     (From  Harrington's  "Practical  Hygiene.'  ) 

Water  from  the  upper  pervious  stratum  should  be 
avoided  wherever  possible,  even  with  wells  of  the  kind 
just  described.  Especially  is  this  necessary  where  the 
wells  are  shallow.  The  purest  water  is  obtained  by  sink- 
ing the  well  through  an  impervious  stratum,  like  that 
shown  in  Fig.  68. 

The  most  dangerous  well  is  the  common  dug  well  with 
pervious  walls  and  so  located  as  to  permit  seepage  into 

17 


258 


CREAMHRY  BUTTHR   MAKING 


it    from   outhouses,   barnyards   and   cesspools.     Wells 
this  type  are  altogether  too  common  on  dairy  farms. 


of 


Fig.  69.— Source  of  well  water  contamination.     (From  Bui.  143 
Kan.  Ex.  Sta.) 

All  wells,  whatever  their  construction,  must  be  provided 
with  water-tight  metallic  or  concrete  covers  to  prevent 
the  entrance  of  impurities  into  the  shaft. 


WATER  SUPPLY   FOR  CREAMERY. 

The  matter  of  using  clean,  pure  water  for  washing 
butter  has  hitherto  not  received  the  attention  wwhich  this 
subject  demands.  There  is  no  question  that  much  butter 
is  robbed  of  its  rich,  creamery  flavor  by  too  much  wash- 
ing with  impure  water.  Impure  water  materially  affects 
the  keeping  quality  of  butter  and  may  seriously  affect 
its  wholesomeness  if  infected  with  disease-producing 
organisms.  In  constructing  a  creamery  well,  therefore, 


WATER  SUPPLY  259 

the  same  care  should  be  taken  as  that  outlined  above  for 
the  construction  of  a  farm  well. 

Purifying  Water  by  Filtration.  Most  people  are 
familiar  with  the  purifying  action  which  water  under- 
goes in  its  passage  through  sand,  gravel,  charcoal,  etc. 
For  purifying  water  used  for  washing  butter,  artificial 
filter  beds  constructed  of  such  material  have  given  excel- 
lent satisfaction. 

The  filter  can  described  in  bulletin  No.  71  from  the 
Iowa  Experiment  Station  is  48  inches  high,  18  inches 
in  diameter,  and  constructed  of  22  gage  galvanized  iron. 
Beginning  at  the  bottom  the  filtering  material  was  placed 
in  the  can  in  the  following  order:  (1)2  inches  of  small 
flint  stones;  (2)  22  inches  of  fine  sand;  (3)  12  inches  of  - 
fine  coke;  (4)  9  inches  of  charcoal;  (5)  2  inches  of  fine 
stone  or  coarse  gravel.  Two  perforated  plates  are  placed 
in  the  can,  one  near  the  bottom  upon  which  the  filtering 
material  rests,  the  other  on  top  of  the  fine  sand.  A  third 
and  concave  plate  is  placed  near  the  top  with  a  hole  in 
the  center,  which  directs  the  water  to  the  center  of  the 
filter  bed. 

This  can  has  a  filtering  capacity  of  16  gallons  per 
hour,  and  it  is  claimed  that  the  filter  does  not  need  to  be 
cleaned  or  renewed  oftener  than  once  in  four  months  and 
possibly  not  this  often.  The  cost  of  the  can  is  $11.11. 

Filtration  offers  one  of  the  cheapest  methods  of  purify- 
ing water  and  is  the  method  generally  employed  by  cities 
that  are  dependent  upon  lakes  for  their  water  supply. 

Purification  of  Water  by  Heating.  Water  may  be 
pasteurized  in  the  same  manner  as  cream.  There  is,  how- 
ever, one  objection  to  this  method  of  purifying  water, 
and  that  is  the  bad  effect  which  it  has  on  the  pasteurizer. 


260 


CREAMERY   BUTTER   MAKING 


In  the  course  of  time  a  distinct  layer  of  the  mineral  im- 
purities of  the  water  will  be  deposited  upon  the  walls  of 
the  pasteurizer  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  formation  of 
scale  in  the  boiler.  This  mineral  deposit  will  in  time 
destroy  the  usefulness  of  the  pasteurizer. 


FL-OOPl. 

Fig.  70.— Showing  method  of  sterilizing  wash  water  for  butter. 

A  satisfactory  method  of  purifying  water  by  heating 
is  illustrated  in  Fig.  70.  The  water  is  pumped  from 
the  well  into  the  galvanized  iron  tank,  A,  which  is  placed 
about  6  feet  above  the  floor  in  the  boiler  room.  This 
tank  is  tightly  covered  with  the  exception  of  a  small 
vent  in  the  cover. 

The  water  is  heated  by  placing  a  series  of  galvanized 
iron  pipes  in  the  bottom  of  the  tank  through  which  all, 
or  a  part,  of  the  exhaust  steam  from  the  engine  is  con- 
ducted. In  this  way  the  expense  of  heating  water  will 


VVATBR  SUPPLY  261 

amount  to  nothing  more  than  a  slight  back  pressure  on  the 
engine. 

The  hot  water  may  be  drawn  off  from  this  tank  when- 
ever desirable  and  cooled  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
cream,  that  is,  by  running  it  over  the  cream  cooler  B. 
From  the  cooler  the  water  should  be  run  into  a  tank  in 
which  it  can  be  cooled  to  the  desired  temperature  by 
means  of  ice  water.  The  water  as  it  leaves  the  cooler 
will  have  a  temperature  of  from  60  to  65  degrees,  so  that 
only  enough  ice  will  be  needed  to  reduce  the  temperature 
about  10  degrees. 

Fig.  70  also  illustrates  the  method  of  heating  water 
for  the  boiler  and  for  general  washing. 

Determining  the  Purity  of  Water.  The  Author  has 
found  that  a  good  idea  of  the  purity  of  well  water  may 
be  had  by  adding  about  ten  c.  c.  of  the  water  to  one  pint 
of  sterile  milk  and  keeping  the  inoculated  milk  at  a  tem- 
perature of  about  85  degrees  for  36  to  48  hours.  If  the 
water  contains  many  putrefactive  organisms  it  will  pro- 
duce an  odor  in  the  milk  which  is  akin  to  that  of  rotten 
eggs.  A  control  sample  of  sterile  milk  should  always  be 
carried  as  a  check  on  the  efficiency  with  which  the  milk 
has  been  sterilized.  Obviously  pathogenic  bacteria  can 
not  be  detected  by  this  method. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

SELLING    CREAM    AND    ICE    CREAM. 
RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  BUTTER,  CREAM  AND  ICE  CREAM. 

Creameries  located  near  good  markets  can  often  dis- 
pose of  a  portion  of  their  cream  to  good  advantage  in  the 
forms  of  cream  and  ice  cream.  To  illustrate  this,  let  us 
assume  that  butter,  cream  and  ice  cream  can  be  sold  at  the 
following  prices:  Butter,  25  cents  per  pound;  30%  cream, 
$1.00  per  gallon;  and  ice  cream  made  from  15%  cream, 
$1.00  per  gallon.  Taking  100  pounds  of  4%  milk  as  a 
basis,  this  will  have  the  following  values  when  sold  at  the 
above  prices: 

Value  of  Butter.  One  hundred  pounds  of  4%  milk 
will  yield  4  2-3  pounds  of  butter,  because  where  up-to- 
date  methods  of  creaming  and  churning  are  followed 
every  pound  of  butter  fat  will  make  fully  I  1-6  pounds 
of  butter.  Four  and  two-thirds  pounds  of  butter  at  25 
cents  per  pound  are  worth  $1.17.  Valuing  buttermilk 
and  skimmilk  at  one-half  cent  per  pound,  47  cents 
should  be  added  to  the  $1.17  as  the  value  of  the  skim- 
milk  and  buttermilk,  making  a  total  value  of  $1.64  for 
the  100  pounds  of  4%  milk. 

Value  of  Cream.  One  hundred  pounds  of  4%  milk 
will  make  13.33  pounds  of  30%  cream,  as  determined  by 
the  following  rule:  To  find  the  number  of  pounds  of 
cream  from  a  given  amount  of  milk,  multiply  the  milk 
by  its  test  and  divide  the  product  by  the  test  of  the  cream. 
Thus,  100  X  4  -^-  30=  13.33,  the  number  pounds  of 
cream  from  100  founds  of  4%  milk. 

262 


SELLING  CREAM  AND  ICE  CREAM  263 

Since  a  gallon  of  30%  cream  weighs  practically  the 
same  as  a  gallon  of  water  (8.35  Ibs.),  the  13.33  pounds 
of  cream  are  equal  to  1.6  gallons,  which,  at  $1.00  per  gal- 
lon, are  worth  $1.60.  Allowing  one-half  cent  per  pound 
for  skimmilk,  we  have  43  cents  as  the  value  of  the  86 
pounds  of  skimmilk,  which  gives  a  total  value  of  $2.03 
for  the  100  pounds  of  4%  milk. 

Value  of  Ice  Cream.  Since  a  gallon  of  15%  cream 
weighs  8.45  pounds,  100  pounds  of  4%  milk  will  make 
3.15  gallons  of  15%  cream  (see  rule  for  calculating 
cream,  p.  262)  or,  allowing  an  overrun  of  33  1-3%,  4.2 
gallons  of  ice  cream.  At  $1.06  per  gallon  this  is  worth 
$4.20.  To  this  must  be  added  the  value  of  73  pounds  of 
skimmilk,  which,  at  one-half  cent  per  pound,  are  worth 
37  cents,  making  a  total  value  of  $4.57  for  the  100  pounds 
of  milk  made  into  ice  cream. 

Summary.  The  preceding  calculations  show  that  100 
pounds  of  4%  milk  are  worth. 

$1.64  when  sold  as  butter, 
2.03  when  sold  as  cream, 
4.57  when  sold  as  ice  cream. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  above  figures  show  the 
relative  gross  returns  at  the  prices  given.  The  net  re- 
turns will  vary,  depending  largely  upon  the  cost  of 
marketing  and  the  quantity  of  cream  handled.  In  the 
case  of  ice  cream,  20  to  25  cents  per  gallon  must  be  de- 
ducted as  the  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  its  manufac- 
ture. 

SEUJNG    CREAM. 

In  marketing  cream  only  the  sweetest  and  best  flavored 
should  be  selected.  Its  temperature  should  at  once  be 


264  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

reduced  below  50°  F.  When  transported  long  distances 
in  bulk,  the  cream  should  be  handled  according  to  the 
method  outlined  in  chapter  XXVIII,  Transportation  of 
Cream. 

All  cream  sold  must  be  guaranteed  to  contain  a 
definite  fat  content.  The  process  by  which  cream  is 
brought  to  a  definite  percentage  of  fat  is  known  as 
"standardizing"  cream. 

STANDARDIZING  CREAM. 

Reducing  Cream  with  Skimmilk.  When  a  definite 
quantity  of  standardized  cream  is  called  for,  determine 
first  the  amount  of  original  cream  (cream  as  it  leaves  the 
separator)  required  according  to  the  following  rule: 

Rule:  Multiply  the  number  of  pounds  of  standardized 
cream  called  for  by  its  test  and  divide  the  product  by  the 
test  of  the  original  cream. 

The  difference  between  the  amounts  of  original  and 
standardized  cream  represents  the  amount  of  skimmilk  re- 
quired. 

.  Problem:  How  many  pounds  each  of  45%  cream  and 
skimmilk  (zero  test)  are  required  to  make  60  pounds  of 
18%  cream? 

Applying  the  above  rule  we  get, 

(60  X  18)  -r-  45  =  24  =  No.  Ibs.  of  original  cream. 

60  —  24  =  36  =  No.  Ibs.  of  skimmilk. 

Mixing  Two  Milks  or  Two  Creams,  or  Milk  and 
Cream,  of  Different  Richness.  In  the  preceding  for- 
mula the  test  of  the  skimmilk  was  considered  zero. 
When  milks  or  creams  of  different  tests  are  mixed  the 
calculation  becomes  more  difficult.  Pearson,  however, 
has  devised  a  method  by  which  calculations  of  this  kind 
are  very  much  simplified.  This  method  is  as  follows: 


SELLING  CREAM  AND  ICE  CREAM 


265 


Draw  a  rectangle  with  two  diagonals,  as  shown  below. 
At  the  left  hand  corners  place  the  tests  of  the  milks  or 
creams  to  be  mixed.  In  the  center  place  the  richness 
desired.  At  the  right  hand  corners  place  the  differences 
between  the  two  numbers  in  line  with  these  corners.  The 
number  at  the  upper  right  hand  corner  represents  the 
number  of  pounds  of  milk  or  cream  to  use  with  the  rich- 
ness indicated  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner.  Likewise 
the  number -at  the  lower  right  hand  corner  represents  the 
number  of  pounds  of  milk  or  cream  to  use  with  the 
richness  indicated  in  the  lower  left  hand  corner. 

Example:  How  many  pounds  each  of  30%  cream  and 
3.5%  milk  required  to  make  25%  cream? 


35% 


Las, 


21.5,  the  difference  between  3.5  and  25,  is  the  number 
of  pounds  of  30%  cream  needed ;  and  5,  the  difference 
between  25  and  30,  is  the  number  of  pounds  of  3.5% 
milk  needed. 

From  the  ratio  of  milk  and  cream  thus  found,  any 
definite  quantity  is  easily  made  up.  If,  for  example,  300 
pounds  of  25%  cream  is  desired,  the  number  of  pounds 
each  of  30%  cream  and  3.5%  milk  is  determined  as  fol- 
lows: 


266 


CREAMERY   BUTTER   MAKING 


21.5  +  5  =  26.5 

21.5 

X  300  =  243.4,  the  number  of  pounds 

5  of  30%  cream. 

-  X  300  =  56.6,  the  number  of  pounds 
26'5  of  *.*%  milk. 


MAKING  AND   MARKETING  ICE  CREAM. 

For  the  best  quality  of  ice  cream  use  cream  containing 
about  20%  butterfat.  Put  the  cream  into  a  tin 
can  and  pasteurize  it  as  follows:  Place  the  can  in  hot 
water  and  stir  slowly,  but  constantly,  while  heating.  As 
soon  as  the  temperature  reaches 
150°  F.  remove  the  cream  from 
the  hot  water  and  let  it  stand 
at  room  temperature  from  ten 
to  fifteen  minutes,  then  cool 
quickly  to  near  the  freezing 
temperature. 

Pasteurization  improves  the 
quality  of  the  ice  cream,  giving 
it  a  much  smoother  body,  and 
also  destroys  practically  all  of 
the  bacteria. 

Vanilla  Flavor.  Vanilla  is 
the  most  popular  of  ice  cream 
flavors.  The  best  vanilla  flavor 
is  obtained  by  using  the  best 
Mexican  vanilla  bean.  Not  only 

does    this    bean    give    the    best       Fig.  7i.-vaniiia  beans, 
flavor,  but  it  costs  less  than  half 


SELLING  CREAM  AND  ICE  CREAM  267 

as  much  as  the  vanilla  extracts.  The  best  beans  are  very 
oily  and  pliable,  about  nine  inches  long,  very  fragrant 
and  closed,  leaving  none  of  the  seeds  exposed. 

The  flavor  is  prepared  by  cutting  the  beans  in  small 
pieces  and  grinding  them  with  loaf  sugar.  Immediately 
after  grinding,  the  vanilla  sugar  is  bottled  and  corked 
and  set  aside  until  ready  for  use.  On  an  average  one 
and  one-half  beans  are  required  per  gallon  of  cream. 

Vanilla  Ice  Cream.  In  pasteurizing,  as  soon  as  the 
temperature  reaches -150°  F.  add  sugar  at  the  rate  of  one 
and  three-fourths  pounds  per  gallon  of  cream.  This 
amount  includes  the  vanilla  sugar.  Next  add  the  vanilla 
sugar,  thoroughly  mix,  and  just  before  cooling,  strain 
through  one  thickness  of  cheese  cloth  if  the  seeds  are  to 
be  retained  in  the  creim,  and  through  four  thicknesses  if 
they  are  to  be  excluded.  The  sugar  will  dissolve  much 
more  quickly  and  the  flavor  will  be  more  thoroughly  ab- 
stracted from  the  ground  beans  when  both  are  added 
while  the  cream  is  still  hot.  Hot  cream  also  strains  far 
more  quickly  than  cold. 

Freezing.  Crush  ice  to  moderate  fineness  in  a  strong 
wooden  box  with  a  heavy  round  stick  shaped  like  a  potato 
masher.  Pack  this  around  the  freezing  can,  using  three 
parts  of  ice  to  one  of  ice  cream  salt.  Start  the  freezer 
as  soon  as  the  cream  begins  to  freeze.  There  is  danger 
of  churning  the  cream  when  the  freezer  is  started  while 
the  cream  is  still  warm.  As  soon  as  it  becomes  difficult 
to  turn  the  freezer  longer,  remove  the  beater,  scrape  all 
cream  from  it  and  pack  the  cream  closely  in  the  can. 
The  cream  may  now  be  packed  at  once  into  small  retail 
packing  cans,  or  the  brine  may  be  removed,  more  crushed 
ice  and  salt  added,  and  the  cream  kept  in  the  freezer  until 
needed  for  packing  for  retail  trade. 


268  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

Lemon  Ice  Cream.  In  making  lemon  flavored  ice 
cream  use  the  best  paper-wrapped  lemons,  free  from  any 
signs  of  decay.  Wash  the  lemons  lightly  in  cold  water 
and  grate  off  the  outer,  yellowish  portion  of  the  rind, 
being  careful  not  to  grate  off  any  of  the  white  por- 
tion which  is  very  bitter.  Mix  the  grated  rind  with 
sugar,  using  one  ounce  of  sugar  for  each  lemon  rind. 
Next  cut  the  lemons  in  two  and  squeeze  out  the  juice, 
removing  any  seeds  that  may  have  dropped  in  from  the 
squeezer.  Mix  the  juice  with  the  sugared  rind  and  add 
orange  juice  to  the  mixture,  using  one  orange  to  every 
five  lemons.  Allow  the  mixture  to  stand  for  about  one 
hour,  stirring  it  occasionally,  and  then  strain.  Use  at 
the  rate  of  one  and  one-half  gills  (4  gills  =  I  pint)  per 
gallon  of  cream.  The  flavor  may  be  beaten  into  the  cream 
after  it  is  frozen,  or  it  may  be  added  when  the  cream  is 
partially  frozen.  The  latter  is  the  more  convenient 
method,  since  the  paddles  in  the  freezer  will  accomplish 
the  mixing. 

In  making  lemon  ice  cream,  use  at  the  rate  of  two 
pounds  of  sugar  per  gallon  of  cream,  instead  of  one  and 
three  fourths  as  for  vanilla  ice  cream.  In  other  respects 
the  cream  is  treated  and  handled  the  same  as  in  making 
vanilla  ice  cream. 

Packing  Ice  Cream.  Cream  that  is  to  be  retailed 
within  a  day  after  freezing  should  be  packed  into  one- 
quart,  two-quart,  one-gallon,  or  larger,  packing  cans  im- 
mediately after  freezing.  The  packing  cans  should  be 
clean,  sterile,  and  cool  when  the  cream  is  packed  into  them. 
Fill  them  by  means  of  a  large  spoon  or  dipper,  thoroughly 
packing  the  cream  so  as  to  leave  no  air  spaces.  Put 
the  cover  on  securely  and  thoroughly  coat  the  edge  with 


SELLING  CREAM  AND  ICE  CREAM 


269 


butter  to  keep  out  brine.  This  done,  place  the  packed 
can  of  cream  in  the  proper  sized  tub  and  pack  with  ice 
and  salt  the  same  as  for  freezing,  using  however  most 
of  the  salt  near  the  top.  It  is  also  better  to  have  the 
ice  somewhat  coarser  for  packing  than  for  freezing.  To 
eliminate  all  danger  of  brine  entering  the  can,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  a  hole  in  the  tub  at  a  point,  say,  one  inch 
below  the  top  of  the  can  within  it. 


Fig.  72.— Packing  can. 


Fig.  73. -Packing  tub. 


If  some  of  the  cream  is  to  be  held  longer  than  a  day 
after  freezing,  it  is  better  to  leave  it  packed  in  the  freezer 
until  called  for  by  the  consumer.  Cream  can  be  kept 
frozen  in  bulk  more  conveniently  than  in  small  packing 
cans,  and  will  require  also  less  ice  and  salt.  Where  ice 
cream  is  kept  in  bulk  as  here  indicated,  it  should  not  be 
kept  frozen  too  hard,  else  there  will  be  difficulty  in  getting 
it  packed  solidly  into  the  small  cans. 


270  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

Ice  cream  must  not  be  allowed  to  melt  in  the  packing 
cans.  Remove  the  brine  and  repack  with  ice  and  salt 
often  enough  to  prevent  melting.  In  the  melting  process 
the  water  separates  and  this  forms  undesirable  crystals 
when  the  cream  is  re-frozen. 

Where  cream  is  wholesaled  in  five  and  ten  gallon  lots 
and  where  the  ice  water  is  removed  from  the  tubs  and  the 
latter  repacked  just  before  shipping  or  delivering,  the 
cans  need  not  be  sealed  with  butter  nor  need  there  be 
any  opening  in  the  tubs  except  at  the  bottom. 

Overrun.  This  refers  to  the  excess  of  ice  cream  over 
cream.  Anything  that  tends  to  incorporate  and  hold  air 
in  cream  conduces  to  a  large  overrun.  Thus  excessive 
beating  of  the  cream  during  freezing  mixes  a  great  deal 
of  air  with  it,  and  hence,  increases  the  overrun.  A  high 
viscosity  of  the  cream  holds  the  air  incorporated  during 
freezing.  Fresh  separator  cream  has  a  low  viscosity,  that 
is,  does  not  whip  well,  hence  will  not  swell  up  so  much 
in  freezing  as  cream  that  has  been  kept  cold  for  twenty- 
four  hours.  Pasteurized  cream  also  has  a  low  viscosity, 
but  this  will  improve  by  keeping  the  cream  at  a  low  tem- 
perature a  number  of  hours  before  freezing. 

With  pasteurized  cream  and  a  speed  of  about  eighty 
revolutions  per  minute,  there  will  be  an  overrun  of  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty-three  per  cent.  With  unpasteurized 
cream  and  a  high  speed  of  the  freezer,  the  overrun  may 
be  increased  to  fifty  per  cent. 

Large  overruns  are  always  obtained  at  the  expense  of 
quality. 

Marketing  Ice  Cream.  The  essential  thing  in  build- 
ing up  a  good  ice  cream  trade  is  to  make  the  best  product 
possible.  The  market  is  glutted  with  cheap,  inferior  ice 


SELLING  CRBAM  AND  ICH  CRBAM 


271 


cream,  and  the  call  now  is  for  a 
high  grade  product.  Fortunately 
the  public  is  beginning  to  realize 
that  there  is  positive  danger  in 
eating  ice  cream  made  from  old, 
stale  milk  or  cream,  and  the  pub- 
lic also  seems  to  begin  to  under- 
stand that  the  bulk  of  ice  cream 
is  made  with  so-called  thickeners, 
like  gelatine,  corn  starch,  tapioca, 
arrow  root,  and  others.  Many 
so-called  ice  creams  contain  no 
cream  whatever.  The  highest 
quality  of  ice  cream  contains 
nothing  but  good,  pure  cream, 
sugar  and  flavoring. 
When  hauled  long  distances  or  shipped,  the  packing 

can  should  be  placed  in  a  covered  tub  like  that  shown  in 

Fig.  74,  and  enough  ice  and  salt  packed  around  it  to  keep 

it  from  melting. 

Where   ordinary   open   tubs   are  used,   they  should  be 

covered  with  burlap  or  heavy  paper. 


Fig.  74. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

CREAMERY   MECHANICS. 
THE    STEAM    BOILER. 

There  are  three  principal  types  of  boilers  in  use  at  the 
present  time :  (i)  water  tube  boilers ;  (2)  internally  fired, 
or  marine,  boilers;  and  (3)  fire  tube  boilers. 

In  the  water  tube  boiler  the  water  circulates  through 
tubes  which  receive  the  heat  directly  from  the  furnace. 
These  tubes  communicate  with  an  iron  cylinder,  placed 
directly  over  them,  which  serves  the  purpose  of  a  steam 
reservoir.  Boilers  of  this  type  are  rapidly  gaining  favor 
as  economical  steam  generators.  They  occupy  somewhat 
more  space,  however,  than  the  other  types  of  boilers. 

In  the  marine  boiler,  the  firing  is  done  in  the  shell,  the 
entire  fire  box  being  surrounded  by  water.  The  return 
heat  passes  through  a  series  of  tubes  which  nearly  sur- 
round the  upper  half  of  the  fire  box.  The  entire  boiler 
consists  of  a  round  iron  cylinder  supported  on  short  legs. 
It  is  heavily  covered  with  asbestos  which  dispenses  with 
the  brick  work  necessary  with  the  fire  tube  boilers. 

The  marine  boiler  is  neat  and  attractive  and  has  grown 
much  in  popularity  in  recent  years.  As  its  name  implies 
this  type  of  boiler  has  been  mostly  used  on  the  sea,  but 
is  now  to  be  seen  nearly  everywhere  in  power  plants. 

The  common  form  of  creamery  boiler  belongs  to  the 
fire  tube  kind.  Fig.  75  illustrates  this  boiler  partly  laid 
in  brick.  The  grates,  or  iron  bars,  upon  which  the  fire  is 
placed  are  seen  in  the  front  half  of  the  brick  work.  The 

212 


CREAMERY  MECHANICS 


273 


18 


274 


CREAMERY   BUTTER   MAKING 


heat  and  smoke  pass  along  the  underside  of  the  boiler 
toward  the  rear  and  return  through  the  fire  tubes.  To 
prevent  radiation  of  heat  the  brick  work  must  be  built 
up  to  cover  the  entire  boiler.  The  fire  box  must  be  con- 
structed of  the  best  fire  brick. 


Fig.  76. -Glass 
gauge. 


Fig.  77. -Gauge 
cocks. 


The  various  boiler  accessories  will  be  described  in  the 
following  paragraphs. 

Glass  Gauge.  This  is  a  glass  tube  attached  to  the 
side  of  the  boiler  to  indicate  the  height  of  the  water  in 
it.  The  gauge  is  represented  in  Fig.  76.  It  is  so  attached 
that  its  lowest  point  is  about  two  inches  above  the  highest 
part  of  the  fire  line  of  the  boiler,  its  entire  length  being 
usually  about  fifteen  inches.  The  cock  at  the  bottom  is 
used  to  blow  out  the  sediment  that  is  liable  to  block  the 
opening  between  it  and  the  boiler.  When  this  occurs 
the  gauge  becomes  a  false  indicator.  Frequent  blowing 
out  is  therefore  necessary.  The  cock  next  to  the  blow 
out  admits  the  water  from  the  boiler.  The  cock  above 
this  admits  the  steam.  When  the  glass  breaks  shut  off 
the  water  first,  then  the  steam.  Always  have  a  few  extra 
glasses  on  hand  so  that  the  broken  one  can  be  immediately 
replaced.  Owing  to  its  tendency  to  clog,  the  gauge  can 


CREAMERY  MECHANICS  275 

not  always  be  relied  upon,  hence  the  use  of  water  cocks 
placed  next  to  the  glass  gauge. 

Water  Gauge  Cocks.  Fig.  77  shows  the  attachments 
of  these  cocks.  The  water  level  should  be  kept  as  near 
as  possible  to  the  middle  cock.  It  should  never  go  below 
the  lower  cock,  nor  above  the  upper.  These  cocks  should 
be  opened  many  times  during  the  day  and  so  long  as 
steam  issues  from  the  upper  and  water  from  the  lower 
cock,  the  water  level  is  all  right. 

Steatn  Gauge.  This  shows  the  number  of  pounds  of 
steam  pressure  per  square  inch  on  the  boiler  by  means 
of  a  pointer  moving  around  a  dial.  Below  the  dial  is  a 
loop  which  contains  water  to  prevent  injury  to  the  gauge 
from  the  hot  steam.  The  steam  gauge  is  liable  to  get 
out  of  order  and  will  then  fail  to  show  the  true  pressure. 
Such  a  condition  is  indicated  by  the  safety  valve. 

Safety  Valve.  This  is  placed  on  top  of  the  steam 
chamber  and  permits  the  escape  of  steam  when  the  steam 
pressure  reaches  the  danger  limit.  It  is  an  indispensable 
boiler  attachment  as  without  it  the  boiler  would  be  a 
dangerous  thing.  There  are  two  kinds  of  safety  valves, 
the  "pop"  and  "ball  and  lever"  types.  The  former  is 
considered  the  more  desirable  because  it  is  not  so  easily 
tampered  with.  Both  can  be  set  to  blow  off  at  different 
pressures. 

Water  Feed  Apparatus.  There  are  two  ways  of  feed- 
ing water  into  a  boiler,  namely,  with  injectors  and  with 
pumps. 

Injector.  This  important  boiler  accessory,  illustrated 
in  Fig.  78,  is  attached  to  the  side  of  the  boiler.  It  utilizes 
the  steam  directly  from  the  boiler  for  forcing  water  into 
it  against  a  pressure  as  great  as  that  which  sends  it  forth. 
The  principle  which  makes  this  possible  may  be  stated 


276 


CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 


as  follows :  Steam  issuing  from  a  boiler  under  70  pounds 
pressure  has  a  velocity  of  1,700  feet  per  second.  When 
steam  with  this  high  velocity  strikes  the  combining  tube 
A,  it  produces  suction  which  in  turn  induces  a  flow  of 
water.  As  soon  as  the  water  enters  the  combining  tube 
it  is  given  motion  by  the  high  velocity  of  the  steam, 


CREAMERY  MECHANICS  277 

which  immediately  condenses  and  moves  with  the  water 
into  the  boiler  at  a  comparatively  low  velocity.  The 
energy,  therefore,  by  which  steam  can  force  water  into  the 
boiler  against  its  own  pressure  is  the  latent  heat  resulting 
from  the  condensation  of  the  steam  in  the  combining 
tube. 

From  this  it  must  be  evident  that  the  efficiency  of  the 
injector  is  dependent  upon  the  completeness  with  which 
the  steam  condenses.  This  is  clearly  proved  by  every 
day  practical  experience.  When,  for  instance,  the  feed 
water  is  too  hot,  the  steam  pressure  too  high,  or  the 
steam  is  wet,  the  injector  fails  to  work  properly  because 
the  steam  does  not  sufficiently  condense  when  it  strikes 
the  feed  water. 

Starting  the  Injector.  This  is  done  by  opening  the 
supply  water  valve  one  or  two  turns,  then  the  steam  valve 
wide.  If  steam  issues  from  the  overflow  admit  a  little 
more  water;  if  water  overflows  admit  less. 

Care  of  Injector.  An  injector  will  become  coated 
with  sediment  or  scale  the  same  as  the  boiler  and  must, 
therefore,  be  frequently  cleaned.  This  is  best  done  by 
immersing  it  in  a  solution  of  one  part  muriatic  acid  and 
ten  parts  water.  Allow  to  remain  in  this  solution  until 
the  scale  becomes  soft  enough  to  permit  washing  out.  A 
clean  injector  rarely  causes  trouble  but  if  trouble  does 
occur  it  may  be  due  to:  (i)  low  steam  pressure;  (2)  too 
hot  water;  (3)  leaks  in  pipes  and  injector;  (4)  clogging 
of  water  pipe;  (5)  wet  steam;  (6)  poor  working  condi- 
tion of  check  and  overflow  valves;  (7)  clogging  of  feed 
pipe  where  it  enters  the  boiler. 

The  injector  is  commonly  used  to  feed  water  into  the 
boiler  because  it  is  cheap  and  simple,  and  occupies  little 
space. 

Pumps.     There  are  two  kinds:    (i)   those  run  with 


278  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

steam  directly,  and  (2)  those  run  by  the  engine.  The 
latter  is  the  more  economical  and  handles  hot  water  with 
less  trouble.  It  has  one  disadvantage,  however,  and  that 
is  it  does  not  work  unless  the  engine  is  running.  With 
good  pumps,  especially  those  run  by  the  engine,  good 
work  may  be  expected  when  the  feed  water  has  been 
heated  to  200°  F.  with  the  exhaust  steam  from  the  engine. 
With  the  injector  such  high  temperatures  are  not  per- 
missible, hence  the  greater  economy  of  the  pump.  The 
great  saving  of  fuel*  by  feeding  water  hot  into  the  boiler 
is  illustrated  by  experiments  made  by  Jacobus  which 
show  that  with  a  direct  acting  pump  12.1%  fuel  is  saved 
by  heating  the  feed  water  from  60°  to  200°  before  pump- 
ing it  into  the  boiler.  With  injectors  the  feed  water  used 
usually  has  a  temperature  of  about  60°  F. 


Water  is  practically  a  non-conductor  of  heat.  This 
means  that  it  cannot  conduct  its  heat  to  its  neighboring 
particles.  When,  therefore,  heat  is  applied  to  the  bottom 
of  a  vessel  containing  water,  the  particles  at  the  bottom 
do  not  communicate  their  heat  to  the  particles  next  above 
them,  but  expand  and  rise,  cool  ones  taking  their  places. 
This  gives  rise  to  convection  currents  which  tend  to  equal- 
ize the  temperature  of  .the  water  in  the  vessel.  When  the 
water  has  reached  a  uniform  temperature  of  212°  F.  the 
particles  begin  to  fly  off  at  the  surface  in  the  form  of 
vapor,  and  this  we  call  steam.  To  generate  steam  in  a 
boiler,  then,  it  is  necessary  to  impart  to  the  water  in  it 
a  considerable  amount  of  heat,  which  is  produced  by 
burning  fuel  in  the  fire  box. 


CREAMERY  MECHANICS  279 

FIRING  OF  BOILER. 

The  immense  amount  of  heat  stored  in  wood  and  coal 
is  rendered  effective  in  the  boiler  by  burning  (combus- 
tion). To  understand  how  to  fire  a  boiler  intelligently  we 
must  first  learn  what  the  process  of  burning  consists  of. 

Process  of  Burning.  Anything  will  burn  when  the 
temperature  has  been  raised  high  enough  to  cause  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  to  unite  with  it.  Thus,  in  "striking" 
a  match  the  temperature  is  raised  high  enough  by  the 
friction  produced  to  cause  the  match  to  burn.  The  burn- 
ing match  will  produce  heat  enough  to  ignite  the  kind- 
ling, which  in  turn,  produces  the  necessary  heat  to  ignite 
the  wood  or  coal  in  the  fire  box  of  the  boiler.  Burning 
may,  therefore,  be  defined  as  the  union  of  the  oxygen  of 
the  air  with  the  fuel.  In  burning  a  pound  of  coal  or  wood 
a  definite  amount  of  air  must  be  admitted  to  furnish  the 
necessary  oxygen  for  complete  combustion.  When  oxygen 
is  lacking  part  of  the  fuel  passes  out  of  the  chimney  un- ' 
burned  in  the  form  of  gases.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  too 
much  air  is  admitted  the  excess  simply  passes  through 
the  chimney,  absorbing  heat  as  it  passes  through  the 
boiler.  The  problem  of  firing  becomes,  therefore,  a  diffi- 
cult one. 

Burning  Coal  and  Wood.  When  hard  coal  is  burned 
the  fire  should  be  thin.  .A  thickness  of  three  to  four 
inches  on  the  grates  gives  very  satisfactory  results.  For 
best  results  with  soft  coal  a  thickness  of  six  to  seven 
inches  is  recommended.  Whenever  fresh  coal  is  added 
it  should  be  placed  near  the  front  and  the  hot  coals  pushed 
back. 

In  case  wood  is  burned  the  fire  box  should  be  kept  well 
filled,  care  being  necessary  to  keep  every  part  of  the  grate 
well  covered. 


280  .      CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

GENERA^  POINTERS  ON   FIRING. 

1.  Boilers  newly  set  should  not  be  fired  within  two  or 
three  weeks  after  setting  and  then  the  firing  should  be 
very  gradual  for  several  days  to  allow  the  masonry  to 
harden  without  cracking. 

2.  Never  fire  a  boiler  before  determining  the  water 
level  by  trying  the  water  gauge  cocks.     You  can  not 
entirely  rely  upon  glass  gauges,  floats,  and  water  alarms. 

3.  When  starting  the  fire,  open  the  upper  water  gauge 
cock  and  do  not  close  it  until  steam  begins  to  issue  from 
it.     This  permits  the  escape  of  confined  air. 

'4.     Kindle  the  fire  on  a  thin  layer  of  coal  to  protect 
the  grate  bars. 

5.  Always  examine  the  safety  valve  before  starting  a 
fire. 

6.  When  starting  the  fire  all  drafts  should  be  open. 

7.  The  firing  should  be  gradual  until  all  parts  of  the 
boiler  have  been  heated. 

8.  Never  allow  any  part  of  the  grate  bars  to  become 
uncovered  during  firing. 

9.  Frequently  clean  the  ash  pit  to  prevent  overheating 
of  grates   from  the  hot  cinders  underneath. 

10.  The  coals  upon  the  grates  should  not  be  larger 
than  a  man's  first. 

11.  Remember  that  firing  up  a  boiler  rapidly  is  apt  to 
cause  leaks. 

12.  Remember  that  too  little  water  in  the  boiler  causes 
leaks  and  explosions. 

13.  Remember  that  soot  and  ashes  on  heating  surfaces 
always  waste  fuel. 

14.  When  fire  is  drawn  close  dampers,  and  doors  of 
furnace  and  ash  oit. 


CREAMEKY  MECHANICS  281 

15.  Never  open  or  close  valves  when  the  water  is  too 
low  in  the  boiler,  but  immediately  bank  the  fire  with  ashes 
or  earth.     Opening  the  safety  valve  at  such  a  time  will 
throw  the  water  from  the  heated  surfaces,  resulting  in 
overheating  and  possibly  in  explosions. 

1 6.  Use  the  poker  as  little  as  possible  in  firing. 

17.  Keep  the  grate  bars  free  from  "clinkers." 

1 8.  When  the  steam  pressure  goes  too  high,  start  the 
pump,  open  the  doors  of  the  furnace  and  close  the  ash 
pit. 

19.  A  steady  and  even  fire  saves  fuel. 

GENERAL  CARE;  OF  BOILER. 

1.  Always  close  the  steam  and  water  valves  of  the 
glass  gauge  when  you  leave  the  building  for  half  an 
hour  or  more. 

2.  Water  gauges  should  frequently  be  blown  out  and 
cleaned. 

3.  Keep  the  exterior  of  the  boiler  dry.    Moisture  will 
corrode  and  weaken  it. 

4.  The  boiler  should  be  blown  off  under  low  pressure 
every  two  or  three  days. 

5.  A  boiler  that  is  not  used  for  some  time  should  be 
emptied  and  dried.     If  this  cannot  readily  be  done,  fill 
it  full  of  water  to  which  a  little  soda  has  been  added. 

6.  Frequently  examine  the  safety  valve  to  see  that  it 
is  in  good  working  order. 

7.  Do  not  empty  boiler  while  brick  work  is  very  hot. 

8.  Never  pump  cold  water  into  a  hot  boiler.     Leaks 
and  explosions  may  be  the  result. 

9.  Leaky  gauges,  cocks,  valves,  and  flues  should  be 
repaired  at  once. 


282  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

10.  Do  not  fail  to  examine  the  pressure  gauge  fre- 
quently. 

11.  It  is  good  policy  to  have  two  means  of  feeding"  a 
boiler.     The  pump  or  injector  may  get  out  of  order  and 
cause  delay  and  danger. 

12.  Feed  pumps  and  injectors  need  frequent  cleaning 
to  keep  them  in  good  working  order. 

13.  Look  out  for  air  leaks.     If  air  is  admitted  any- 
where except  through  the  grates  serious  waste  may  re- 
sult.   Such  leaks  are  to  be  looked  for  in  broken  doors  and 
poor  brick  work. 

14.  Flues  should  be  cleaned  often,  especially  if  soft 
coal  is  burned.     This  will  prevent  over  heating  of  metal, 
at  the  same  time  save  fuel. 

15.  Do  not  allow  filth  to  accumulate  around  the  boiler 
or  boiler  room. 

1 6.  Keep  all  the  bright  work  about  the  boiler  "shiny." 

17.  Do  not  fail  to  empty  the  boiler  every  week  or  two 
and  refill  with  fresh  water. 

1 8.  Have  your  steam  gauge  tested  at  least  twice  a 
year. 

BOII^R    INCRUSTATION. 

In  all  boilers  after  a  period  of  use,  there  is  deposited 
upon  the  parts  below  the  water  level  a  scale  or  sediment 
known  as  boiler  incrustation. 

Cause  of  Scale.  The  formation  of  scale  is  due  to 
the  impurities  contained  in  the  feed  water.  When  impure 
water  is  fed  into  the  boiler  the  impurity  first  manifests 
itself  in  the  form  of  scum  on  top  of  the  boiling  water. 
The  heavier  particles  of  the  scum  slowly  unite  and  sink 
to  the  bottom  where  they  first  appear  as  mud.  By  con- 
tinued exposure  to  high  temperature,  this  mud  gradually 


CREAMERY  MECHANICS  283 

forms  into  a  hard  impervious  scale  which  usrally  con- 
sists largely  of  lime. 

Objection  to  Scale,  i.  The  excessive  formation  of 
boiler  scale  is  the  immediate  cause  of  most  boiler  explo- 
sions. The  scale  acts  as  a  non-conductor  of  heat,  so  that 
in  cases  where  the  capacity  of  the  boiler  is  severely  taxed, 
the  metal  becomes  overheated,  thus  materially  weakening 
it.  The  scale  is,  therefore,  not  only  dangerous,  but  by 
overheating  the  metal,  also  materially  shortens  the  life 
of  the  boiler.  2.  Another  most  serious  objection  to  scale 
is  its  wastefulness  of  fuel.  This  becomes  evident  when 
we  note  that  the  heat  before  reaching  the  water  must  first 
be  conducted  through  a  non-conducting  layer  of  incrusta- 
tion. 

Prevention  of  Scale.  Since  nearly  all  water  used  for 
boilers  is  more  or  less  impure,  it  is  evident  that  to  prevent 
scale,  boilers  must  receive  frequent  cleaning.  How  often 
this  needs  to  be  done  is,  of  course,  dependent  upon  the 
amount  and  character  of  the  impurity  in  the  water.  Boilers 
are  kept  clean  in  three  different  ways  :  ( i )  by  blowing  off 
at  low  pressure,  (2)  by  cleaning  through  man  hole,  and 
(3)  by  using  boiler  compounds. 

( i.)  By  blowing  the  boiler  off  at  low  pressure  most  of 
the  mud  will  be  blown  out.  But  care  must  be  taken 
that  the  pressure  is  not  above  ten  pounds  and  that  there  is 
no  more  fire  in  the  fire  box,  otherwise  the  mud,  instead 
of  flowing  out  with  the  water,  will  bake  on  and  form 
scale. 

(2.)  A  good  way  of  removing  mud  is  to  allo\\T  the 
boiler  to  cool  off  and  then  run  a  rubber  hose  through  the 
man  hole.  By  working  the  hose  and  forcing  water 
through  it  the  sediment  can  be  removed. 

(3.)     Boiler  compounds  are  used  to  keep  boilers  free 


284  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

from  scale.  The  kind  of  compound  to  be  used  is  deter- 
mined by  the  character  of  the  impurities  of  the  water. 
Most  creameries  use  well  water  for  the  boiler  and  the 
chief  impurity  in  this  is  lime.  The  best  compound  for 
water  of  this  kind  is  soda.  Well  water  contains  the  lime 
in  widely  different  proportions.  In  order,  therefore,  to 
ascertain  the  proportion  of  soda  to  feed  water  the  fol- 
lowing method  is  recommended  by  Hawkins: 

"i.  Add  one  sixteenth  part  of  an  ounce  of  soda  to  a 
gallon  of  the  feed  water  and  boil  it.  2.  When  the  sedi- 
ment thrown  down  by  the  boiling  has  settled  to  the  bottom 
of  the  kettle,  pour  the  clear  water  off  and  add  one-half 
drachm  of  soda  to  this.  Now,  if  the  water  remains  clear, 
the  soda  which  was  put  in  has  removed  the  lime.  But 
if  it  becomes  muddy,  the  second  addition  of  soda  is  neces- 
sary." In  this  way  the  amount  of  soda  to  be  added  to 
the  feed  water  can  be  calculated  with  sufficient  accuracy. 

Tan  bark  is  very  efficient  in  removing  boiler  scale  but 
may  injure  the  iron. 

Kerosene  answers  the  same  purpose  but  renders  the 
steam  unfit  for  use  in  the  creamery. 

When  the  water  is  salt  or  acid,  a  piece  of  metallic  zinc 
occasionally  placed  in  the  boiler  will  prevent  corrosion. 
Water  of  this  kind  can  usually  be  told  by  its  corrosive 
effect  on  copper  and  brass.  Acid  water  can  also  be  de- 
tected with  blue  litmus  paper,  which  it  turns  red. 

WET   AND   DRY    STEAM. 

4) 

Wet  Steam.  This  is  steam  holding  in  suspension 
extremely  small  particles  of  water  which  are  thrown  off 
from  the  water  surface  while  steam  is  generating.  The 
following  are  the  causes  of  wet  steam : 


CREAMERY  MECHANICS  285 

1.  Impure  water  in  the  boiler. 

2.  Too  much  water  in  the  boiler. 

3.  Too  little  evaporating  surface  for  the  amount  of 
steam  used.    This  is  one  of  the  chief  objections  to  upright 
and  too  small  boilers. 

4.  Violent  agitation  of  the  water  in  the  boiler  caused 
by  too  rapid  a  generation  of  steam. 

Wet  steam  causes  "priming"  and  is  wasteful  of  heat. 

Dry  Steam.  This  is  saturated  steam  holding  no  water 
mechanically  in  suspension.  High  steam  pressure  and  a 
large  steam  space  above  the  water  level  are  conducive 
to  dry  steam. 

PIORSE  POWER  OF  BOILERS. 

A  horse  power  of  a  steam  boiler  is  thirty  pounds  of  feed 
water  at  a  temperature  of  100°  F.  converted  into  steam 
in  one  hour  at  76  pounds  gauge  pressure. 

The  horse  power  of  a  boiler  may  be  approximately 
calculated  by  dividing  the  total  square  feet  of  heating 
surface  in  the  shell,  heads,  and  tubes,  by  fifteen. 

SMOKE  STACK. 

It  is  difficult  to  state  the  exact  size  of  a  smoke  stack 
for  a  given  boiler  because  conditions  vary  so  much.  It 
is  evident  that  it  must  be  longer  for  a  boiler  placed  at  the 
foot  of  a  hill  than  for  the  same  boiler  placed  on  top  of 
the  hill. 

A  smoke  stack  for  a  25  H.  P.  boiler  should  be  about 
one  foot  square  inside  and  from  30  to  40  feet  high  and 
built  of  brick.  A  small  smoke  stack  which  affords  in- 
adequate draught  is  wasteful  of  fuel  and  gives  rise  to 
much  trouble  in  firing. 


286 


CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 


THE  STEAM  ENGINE. 


The  engine  may  be  defined  as  a  machine  which  con- 
verts heat  into  mechanical  power.     This  heat  is  obtained 


in  the  form  of  steam  under  pressure  from  the  burning 
fuel  in  the  boiler.  A  common  form  of  creamery  engine 
is  illustrated  in  Fig.  79- 


CREAMERY  MECHANICS 


287 


Engine  Foundation.  The  engine  to  run  smoothly 
must  be  placed  upon  a  solid  foundation  constructed  of 
hard  burned  brick  laid  in  cement.  Where  the  ground 
is  soft  and  loose  the  brick  work  must  be  built  upon  a 
foundation  of  coarse  stones  laid  in  cement. 


Fig.  80.— Steam  cylinder  and  valve  chest. 
PARTS  OF   THE  ENGINE. 

Steam  Cylinder  and  Valve  Chest.  These  are  the 
vital  parts  of  the  engine.  A  section  through  the  cylinder 
and  valve  chest  is  shown  in  Fig.  80.  A  represents  the 
cylinder  part,  B  the  valve  chest. 

Parts  of  A:  i,  cylinder  heads;  2,  bore  of  cylinder; 
3,  counter  bore ;  4,  flanges ;  5,  stuffing  box ;  6,  gland. 

Parts  of  B:     7  and  7\  steam  ports;  8,  exhaust  port; 


288 


CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 


9,  valve  stem  gland ;  10,  valve  stem  stuffing  box ;  1 1,  valve 
chest  cover;   12,  steam  inlet;   13,  slide  valve. 

Working  of  Piston.  The  arrows  in  the  preceding  cut 
show  the  course  which  the  steam  takes  in  the  valve  chest 
and  cylinder.  As  the  steam  enters  at  port  7*  the  piston  is 


Fig.  81.— Piston  and  ring. 

pushed  back  and  the  exhaust  steam  escapes  through  port 
7.  The  slide  valve  13  gradually  moves  forward  while  the 
piston  moves  back  so  that  both  ports  will  be  closed  when 
the  piston  has  traveled  about  four-fifths  of  the  distance 
of  the  cylinder.  There  is,  however,  enough  energy  stored 
in  the  fly  wheel  or  drive  pulley  to  carry  the  piston 
beyond  the  dead  center  when  steam  will  enter  the  cylinder 
through  port  7,  causing  the  piston  to  move  forward  while 
the  exhaust  steam  escapes  through  port  7*.  When  the 
piston  has  traveled  about  four-fifths  of  the  distance  of  the 
cylinder  both  ports  are  again  closed,  so  that  at  every  revo- 
lution of  the  crank  the  dead  center  is  passed  twice. 

Fig.  8 1  shows  the  piston  and  piston  ring. 

The  piston  must  fit  the  cylinder  tight  enough  to  prevent 
leakage  of  steam,  yet  not  so  tight  as  to  cause  undue 


CREAMERY  MECHANICS 


289 


friction.  A  good  way  to  find  out  whether  a  piston  leaks 
steam  is  to  put  the  engine  on  the  dead  center  on  the 
crank  end.  Then  take  off  the  cylinder  cover  on  the  head 
end  and  admit  steam  back  of  the  piston.  If  the  piston 
leaks,  steam  may  be  seen  escaping  between  the  packing 
ring  and  the  wall  of  the  cylinder. 


an  u 

Fig.  82.— Connecting  rod  end. 

Crosshead.  This  connects  the  piston  rod  and  connect- 
ing rod  and  serves  to  guide  the  former  so  as  to  have 
it  move  in  a  straight  line. 

Connecting  Rod.  This  forms  the  connection  between 
the  crosshead  and  crank.  The  crank  end  of  the  rod  is 
shown  in  Fig.  82.  i  represents  the  crank  pin  key;  2, 
crank  brasses,  and  3,  burr  that  fixes  the  crank  pin  key. 

Crank.  This  rotates  the  shaft  of  the  engine  and  per- 
mits the  change  of  rectilinear  into  circular  motion. 

Eccentric.  This  forms  a  sort  of  crank  which,  as  its 
name  implies,  does  not  turn  around  a  true  center.  It 
opens  and  closes  the  steam  ports  in  the  valve  chest  by 
means  of  the  eccentric  rod  which  forms  the  connection 
between  it  and  the  slide  valve. 

Setting  the  Slide  Valve.     The  slide  valve  should  be 

19 


290  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

so  set  on  the  valve  stem  that  its  edges  will  pass  each 
steam  port  an  equal  amount  during  a  full  revolution  of 
the  engine.  If  not  so  set,  the  valve  should  be  moved,  by 
loosening  the  nuts  on  the  valve  stem,  until  the  correct 
position  is  reached. 

The  next  thing  to  do  is  to  place  the  engine  on  its  true 
center  with  the  outward  stroke.  Now  turn  the  eccentric 
upon  the  shaft  in  the  direction  in  which  the  engine  is  to 
run  until  the  valve  has  uncovered  the  port  sufficiently  for 
the  required  lead,  which  should  be  about  one-sixteenth 
of  an  inch. 

Governor.  This  device  governs  or  regulates  the  speed 
of  the  engine  by  controlling  the  inlet  of  steam  in  to  the 
cylinder. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  governors :  one  is  known  as  the 
automatic  cut-off  which  consists  of  centrifugal  weights 
placed  in  the  fly  wheel,  which  vary  the  point  of  cut-off 
by  revolving  the  governor  eccentric  upon  the  shaft.  With 
governors  of  this  kind  the  steam  is  entirely  cut  off  when 
the  speed  gets  too  high,  while  with  the  other  form  of  gov- 
ernor the  steam  is  throttled.  The  "throttle"  or  "ball" 
governor  is  more  common  on  creamery  engines  than  the 
automatic  cut-off.  Fig.  83  illustrates  the  working  of  the 
ball  governor.  The  important  parts  are :  i ,  governor 
balls ;  2,  pulley ;  3,  stem ;  4,  valve  discs ;  5,  stuffing  box ; 
and  6,  valve  seats.  As  the  speed  of  the  engine  increases 
the  balls  are  thrown  farther  out  and  the  valve  discs  come 
nearer  the  valve  seats,  thus  throttling  or  reducing  the 
amount  of  steam  that  enters  the  cylinder. 

The  automatic  cut-off  is  considered  the  more  economi- 
cal of  the  two  governors  though  it  is  somewhat  more 
difficult  to  regulate.  Most  engines  now  made  are  of  the 
automatic  cut-off  type. 


CREAMERY  MECHANICS 


291 


Fig.  S3.— Governor. 


292 


CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 


Lubricator.  This  device  serves  to  supply  oil  to  the 
cylinder.  There  are  various  forms  of  lubricators  one 
of  which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  84.  The  working  of  this 
lubricator  may  readily  be  understood  by  following  the 
course  of  the  steam  as  indicated  by  the  arrows. 

The  steam  condenses  in  the 
small  pipe,  enters  the  bottom 
of  the  oil  cup  where  the  con- 
densed steam  displaces  an 
equal  quantity  of  oil,  which, 
being  lighter  than  water,  is 
forced  up  and  overflows  into 
a  pipe  placed  inside  the  lubri- 
cator whence  it  may  be  seen  to 
escape  in  drops  through  the 
glass  tube.  From'here  it  pass- 
es with  the  steam  into  the 
cylinder. 

Pipes  and  Piping.  The 
main  pipe  is  that  which  con- 
ducts the  steam  from  the  boiler  to  the  engine.  This  pipe 
should  be  well  covered  with  non-conductor  to  prevent 
loss  of  heat. 

A  very  efficient  and  inexpensive  pipe  covering  is  made 
by  mixing  wood  sawdust  and  common  starch,  using  them 
in  the  proportion  to  form  a  thick  paste.  Such  a  paste  will 
adhere  perfectly  to  wrought  or  cast  iron  pipes  when  ab- 
solutely free  from  grease.  A  thickness  of  one  inch  is 
sufficient. 

The  exhaust  steam  pipe  carries  away  the  steam  after  it 
has  been  used  in  the  cylinder.  To  make  the  best  use 
of  the  heat  that  remains  in  exhaust  steam,  this  pipe 
should  first  be  carried  through  a  water  tank  located  in  the 


Fig.  84 .  —Lubricator. 


CRB  AMBRY  MECHANICS  293 

boiler  room,  thence  outside  the  building.  The  exhaust 
steam  will  be  ample  to  heat  all  the  water  needed  for 
washing  as  well  as  that  used  for  the  boiler.  A  great  deal 
of  fuel  can  be  saved  in  a  creamery  by  properly  utilizing 
the  exhaust  steam.  A  drip  cock  will  have  to  be  placed 
at  the  bottom  turn  of  the  exhaust  pipe  to  permit  drain- 
ing it. 

When  the  engine  is  placed  in  the  creamery  proper,  it  is 
very  essential  to  have  cylinder  drain  pipes  to  carry  away 
the  water  and  partially  condensed  steam  that  is  found  in 
the  cylinder  when  the  engine  is  started. 

In  piping  avoid  turns  as  much  as  possible  and  provide 
exhaust  pipes  of  ample  size. 

CARE    AND    MANAGEMENT    OF    ENGINE. 

1.  It  is  essential  to  have  all  parts  of  the  engine  well 
oiled,  using  nothing  but  the  best  oil. 

2.  Keep  the  engine  clean.    The  shiny  parts  should  be 
brightened  at  least  once  a  day. 

3.  Keep  the  engine  well  "keyed  up/'     At  both  ends 
of  the  connecting  rod  are  keys,  one  of  which  is  shown  in 
Fig.  51.     The  purpose  of  these  keys  is  to  keep  the  brass 
boxes  tight  enough  to  prevent  undue  play.    The  "keying" 
consists  in  loosening  the  burrs  next  to  the  key  and  then 
tapping  the  latter  lightly  until  the  unnecessary  play  is 
taken  up.     Care  must  be  taken,  however,  not  to  get  the 
brasses  too  tight  or  a  hot  box  will  be  the  result.    "Pound- 
ing" is  usually  caused  by  not  having  the  keys  properly 
set.     It  is  also  caused  by  wet  steam  and  water  in  the 
cylinder. 

4.  Keep  stuffing  boxes  carefully  packed  to  prevent 
leakage  of  steam.     The  packing  should  be  treated  with 
graphite  or  good  cylinder  oil  and  packed  firmly  around 


294  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

the  rod,  but  it  must  not  be  too  tight,  otherwise  power 
is  lost  in  friction.  If  the  rod  has  become  scored  or  rusty, 
smooth  it  with  emery  cloth  before  packing. 

5.  The  packing  rings  in  the  piston  should  be  kept  in 
good    repair.     The    clicking   noise   sometimes    heard    in 
cylinders  is  due  either  to  the  packing  ring  wiping  over 
the  edge  of  the  counter  bore  or  to  its  being  too  narrow 
for  the  groove  in  which  it  is  placed.     A  ring  is  needed 
that  fits  this  groove  properly.    If  the  packing  ring  is  too 
small  for  the  cylinder  bore  it  should  be  set  out  by  peneing 
or  by  tightening  the  setting  out  bolts. 

6.  When  gumminess  is  noticeable  in  any  of  the  bear- 
ings, remove  same  with  benzine  and  use  a  purer  oil. 

7.  When  the  engine  "races"  look  for  the  trouble  in 
the  governor. 

8.  Thoroughly  drain  cylinder  when  not  in  use.     This 
must  be  done  in  the  winter  to  prevent  freezing. 

HORSE  POWER  OJ?  ENGINE). 

The  horse  power  of  an  engine  is  calculated  from  the 
following  formula: 

p  X 1 X  a  Xn . 

'H-  R  = 33,000          m  whlch 

P  =  Mean  effective  steam  pressure. 
1  =  length  of  stroke  in  feet, 
a  =  area  of  piston  in  square  inches, 
n  =  number  of  strokes  per  minute. 
H.  P.  =  Horse  power. 
33,000  =  Number  of  foot-pounds. 

A  foot-pound  is  one  pound  raised  through  one 
foot  of  space. 

Length  of  stroke  =  twice  the  length  of  crank. 
No.  of  strokes  per  min.  =  twice  the  number  of 
revolutions. 


CREAMERY  MECHANICS  295 

Trd2 
Area  of  piston  ="4"' 

Example : 

P  =  40  Ibs. 

1  =  2   ft. 

a  =  20  sq.  inches. 

n  =  400. 

40  X  2  X  20  X  400  =  640,000 
640,000  -r-  33,000  =  19.4  =  H.  P. 

CALCULATING   SIZE   AND   SPEED   OF   PULLEYS. 

In  creameries  where  new  shafting  and  new  machinery 
are  being  put  up,  it  is  important  to  know  how  to  determine 
the  required  speed  of  the  shafting  as  well  as  the  speed 
and  size  of  the  pulleys.  This  calculation  is  not  difficult 
when  we  remember  the  following  rule: 

The  speed  varies  inversely  with  the  diameter  of  the 
pulley.  Thus,  with  the  same  speed  of  the  engine,  the 
speed  of  the  main  shaft  becomes  less  as  the  diameter  of 
the  pulley  on  that  shaft  is  increased. 

It  must  be  remembered,  also,  that  in  a  creamery  where 
the  churn  and  separators  are  run  directly  from  the  main 
shaft,  the  speed  of  this  shaft  must  be  fixed  at  from  175  to 
200  revolutions  per  minute  in  order  to  permit  the  use  of 
suitable  sized  pulleys. 

We  usually  speak  of  two  kinds  of  pulleys:  the  drive 
pulley  and  the  driven  pulley.  Where  the  engine  drives  the 
main  shaft  the  pulley  on  the  engine  is  called  the  drive 
pulley  and  that  on  the  main  shaft  the  driven  pulley.  When 
we  refer  to  the  main  shaft  driving  the  intermediate,  then 
the  pulley  on  the  main  shaft  becomes  the  driver  and  that 
on  the  intermediate  the  driven  pulley. 

In  creameries  there  are  two  problems  that  present  them- 
selves with  respect  to  pulleys :  one  is  to  find  the  speed  of 


296 


C  RE  AMBRY  BUTTER  MAKING 


the  pulley  when  the  diameter  is  given ;  the  other  is  to  find 
the  diameter  when  the  speed  is  given. 

i.  To  find  the  speed  of  a  driven  pulley:  Multiply  the 
diameter  of  the  driver  by  its  speed  and  divide  the  product 
by  the  diameter  of  the  driven  pulley. 


ft^ecD     X  SPEED    X 

Fig.  85.— Belting  from  engine  to  separator. 

Example :  Diameter  of  engine  pulley,  20  inches ;  speed 
of  engine,  200  revolutions  per  minute ;  diameter  of  driven 
pulley,  25  inches. 

20  X  200  -T-  25  =  160=  No.  rev.  per  min.  of  driven  pulley. 

2.  To  find  diameter  of  driven  pulley:  Multiply  the 
diameter  of  driver  by  its  speed  and  divide  the  product 
by  the  required  speed  of  driven  pulley. 

Example :  Diameter  of  engine  pulley,  20  inches ;  speed 
of  engine,  200  revolutions  per  minute ;  speed  of  driven 
pulley,  200  revolutions  per  minute. 

20  X  200  -5-  200  =  20  =  diameter  of  driven  pulley. 


CREAMERY  MECHANICS  297 

Let  us  calculate  the  size  and  speed  of  pulleys  neces-* 
sary  to  run  a  separator  6,000  revolutions  per  minute 
when  the  following  conditions  are  known :  Size  of  drive 
pulley  on  engine,  16  inches;  size  of  separator  pulley,  3 
inches;  size  of  large  pulley  on  intermediate,  18  inches; 
size  of  small  pulley  on  intermediate,  5  inches;  speed  of 
shaft,  1 80  revolutions  per  minute. 

The  known  conditions  given  here  are  indicated  in  the 
diagram  above  by  figures,  the  unknown  by  x  (Fig.  85). 

The  calculation  in  this  problem  begins  at  the  separator, 
where  both  the  speed  and  diameter  of  the  pulley  are 
known,  and  ends  with  the  determination  of  the  speed  of 
the  engine. 

1.  Determine  the  speed  of  the  intermediate  which  has 
a  large  pulley  at  one  end  and  a  small  one  at  the  other. 
Applying  the  foregoing  rules,  the  speed  of  intermediate 
is  equal  to: 

6000x3-^-18=1000  rev.  per  min. 

2.  Determine  diameter  of  pulley  on  main  shaft.    This 
is  equal  to: 

1000x5-^180=27.7  inches. 

3.  Determine  speed  of  drive  pulley  on  engine.     This 
is  equal  to: 

180X27.7-*- 16=312  rev.  per  min. 

With  most  engines  a  great  range  of  speed  is  possible 
by  regulating  the  governor.  It  is  better,  however,  to  have 
the  drive  pulley  of  such  size  as  to  keep  the  speed  under 
300  revolutions  per  minute. 


298  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

FRICTION  :    ITS  ADVANTAGE  AND  DISADVANTAGE. 

The  resistance  produced  by  one  body  sliding  over 
another  is  called  friction.  No  matter  how  smooth  a  sur- 
face may  appear  it  always  contains  irregularities  (molec- 
ular) which  are  not  unlike  the  teeth  of  a  saw,  though  so 
small  as  to  render  them  invisible  to  the  naked  eye.  When- 
ever, then,  two  surfaces  are  put  together  they  inter- 
lock and  when  made  to  slide  over  each  other  produce 
friction. 

Friction  as  Applied  to  Belts.  Practical  application 
of  friction  is  made  in  transmitting  power  by  means  of 
belts.  Without  friction  such  transmission  would  be  im- 
possible. The  highest  efficiency  of  belts  is  obtained  where 
there  is  no  slipping  or  stretching,  conditions  made  possi- 
ble by  observing  the  following  points: 

1.  Use  only  good  leather  belting. 

2.  Avoid  too  slack  or  too  tight  belts. 

3.  Run  belts  with  the  hair  side  next  to  the  pulley. 

4.  Cover  face  of  pulley  with  belting  and  have  the 
hair  side  out. 

5.  Keep  belts  dry  and  flexible. 

Size  of  Belting.  A  two-ply  belt  may  be  subjected  to 
an  effective  tension  of  40  pounds  per  inch  of  width  with- 
out straining  it.  In  determining,  therefore,  the  width  of 
a  belt  for  a  given  horse  power  the  effective  tension  of  the 
belt  must  be  considered.  Further,  since  a  fast  running 
belt  is  capable  of  transmitting  a  greater  horse  power  per 
given  width  than  a  slow  running  belt,  the  speed  of  the 
belt  must  also  be  considered.  Hence  the  following 
formula : 


CREAMERY  MECHANICS  299 

No.  H.   P.  X  33,000 
Width  of  belt=      ^ 

IT  D  X  No.  rev.  X  40 

In  which 

H.  P.  =  Horse  power. 

33,000  =  Number  of  foot-pounds  in  one  H.  P. 
No.  rev.  =  Number  of  revolutions  of  drive  pulley 

per  minute. 
40  =  Effective  tension. 
TT=  3.1416. 
.  D.  =  Diameter  of  drive  pulley  in  feet. 

Example  :  What  width  of  two-ply  belting  is  required 
with  a  drive  pulley  fourteen  inches  in  diameter,  making 
three  hundred  revolutions  per  minute  and  developing  ten 
horse  power? 

Applying  our  formula  we  have  : 


Lacing  Belts.  In  lacing  belts  care  must  be  taken 
never  to  cross  the  lacing  on  the  side  of  belt  next  to  the 
pulley,  nor  to  have  more  than  a  double  thickness  of 
lacing.  The  ends  of  the  belt  should  be  cut  off  squarely 
so  as  to  have  them  come  together  at  all  points.  Holes 
are  punched  in  a  line  one  inch  from  the  cut  edges 
with  the  outer  ones  within  half  an  inch  of  the  edge  of  the 
belt.  They  should  be  just  large  enough  to  permit  double 
lacing.  The  lacing  is  best  begun  at  the  middle  of  the 
belt,  care  being  taken  to  have  the  smooth  side  of  the  lace 
on  the  side  of  the-  belt  that  runs  on  the  pulley.  The  ends 
are  fastened  either  by  running  them  through  small  holes 
punched  in  line  with  the  lace  holes,  or  by  cutting  a  small 
slit  in  the  middle  of  one  end,  then  cutting  into  the  edge 
and  toward  the  end  of  the  other,  which  is  run  through 
the  slit  just  beyond  the  cut  edge. 


300  CREAMERY   BUTTER   MAKING 

Rubber  belts  are  not  as  desirable  for  creamery  use  as 
leather  belts. 

Adjustment  of  Shafts.  To  avoid  straining  a  belt  the 
shafts  must  be  parallel.  This  means  that  where  the  inter- 
mediate and  engine  are  hitched  to  the  same  shaft  the 
latter  must  be  placed  in  position  first.  The  engine  and 
intermediate  are  then  lined  up  so  as  to  have  their  shafts 
run  parallel  with  the  main  shaft.  When  the  shafts  are 
parallel  the  pulleys  are  easily  adjusted  so  as  to  have  the 
belts  run  on  the  middle  of  the  pulley. 

Lubricants  or  Oils.  These  slippery  substances  act  in 
a  two- fold  way  in  minimizing  the  friction  between  sliding 
surfaces :  ( i )  by  filling  up  the  inequalities  of  the  sliding 
surfaces,  thus  preventing  interlocking;  (2)  by  allowing 
oil  to  slide  on  oil  instead  of  one  solid  surface  upon 
another. 

The  best  oils  are  those  that  are  entirely  free  from  any 
tendency  to  gumminess  and  it  is  economy  to  use  only 
such.  Indeed  in  fast  running  machinery  no  other  oils  are 
permissible. 

Consistency  of  Oils.  This  is  determined  by  the  use 
to  which  the  oil  is  put.  In  fast  running  machinery  where 
there  is  little  pressure  on  the  bearings,  as,  for  example 
in  a  cream  separator,  very  thin  oil  is  most  serviceable. 
The  reasons  for  this  are  (i)  that  only  a  very  thin  layer 
of  oil  is  required  in  the  bearings  of  such  machinery,  and 
(2)  that  there  is  some  friction  produced  in  one  layer  of 
oil  sliding  upon  another,  and  the  thinner  the  oil  the  less 
will  be  the  friction  produced  in  this  way. 

The  crank  shaft  of  an  engine,  which  runs  at  a  com- 
paratively low  speed  and  is  subjected  to  more  or  less 
pressure,  requires  a  rather  heavy  oil  for  best  service. 

Hot  Bearings.     These  are  most  frequently  caused  by 


CREAMERY  MECHANICS 


301 


using  an  insufficient  amount,  or  the  wrong  kind,  of  oil. 
Hot  bearings  are  also  frequently  caused  by  dirt,  slipping 
belts,  too  tight  belts,  and  too  tight  bearings. 

TOOLS,   PACKING,  AND  STEAM    FITTINGS. 

A  creamery  contains  a  great  deal  of  machinery  and 


Fig.  86.— Pipe  cutter. 


Fig.  37.  —Stock  and  die. 

piping.    The  need  of  an  ample  supply  of  tools,  packing, 
and  steam  fittings  is  therefore  evident. 

Tools.  These  consist  mainly  of  pipe  cutter,  two  pipe 
tongs,  vise,  stock  and  dies,  alligator  wrench,  a  pair  of  gas 
pliers,  hammer,  punch,  and  screw  driver.  Fig.  86  shows 
pipe  cutter;  Fig.  87,  stock  and  dies;  Fig.  88,  alligator 
wrench ;  Fig.  89,  vise ;  and  Fig.  90,  pipe  wrench. 


302 


CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 


Packing.  All  steam  stuffing  boxes  should  be  packed 
with  asbestos  which  has  been  treated  with  a  mixture  of 
oil  and  graphite. 


Fig.  88. —Adjustable  alligator  wrench. 


0=0=0 


Pipe  joints,  such  as  unions, 
should  be  fitted  with  rainbow  gas- 
kets to  which  a  little  graphite  or 
chalk  is  added  to  prevent  their 
sticking  to  the  joints.  Pipes  that 
must  be  frequently  taken  apart 
should  have  ground  joints.  These 
will  do  away  with  the  use  of 
gaskets  which  are  troublesome  in 
such  cases. 

Steam  Fittiifgs.  Extra  fittings 
for  one-half  to  two  inch  pipes 
should  always  be  on  hand.  The 
necessary  fittings  are  elbows,  nip- 
ples, bushings,  tees  (Ts),  plugs, 
lock  nuts,  couplings,  reducing  couplings,  and  unions. 


Fig.  89 — Vise. 


Fig.  90.~Pipe  wrench. 


CREAMERY  MECHANICS 


303 


C 


When  using  right  and  left  nipples,  that  is,  nipples  with 
a  right  thread  at  one  end  and  left  thread  at  the  other, 
screw  each  end  separately  into  the  pipe  which  it  is  to  fit 
and  count  the  number  of  threads  covered.  If,  for  exam- 
ple, four  right  threads  are  covered  and  six  left  threads, 

then  cover  two  left  threads  be- 
<  fore    joining   with   the   other 

'  end.    In  this  way  the  two  ends 

turn  tight  at  the  same  time, 
which  is  necessary  to  prevent 
leaking. 


VALVES. 


The  subject  of  valves  is  an 
important  one  and  deserves 
much  attention.  Usually  the 
ordinary  creamery  contains 
from  twenty-five  to  fifty, 
valves.  It  is,  therefore,  not  sur- 
prising to  find  steam  and 
water  leaks  in  a  creamery  building.  To  replace  a  valve 
as  soon  as  it  begins  leaking  is  too  expensive.  The  proper 
thing  to  do  is  to  repair  it.  In  the  following  paragraphs 
a  brief  discussion  will  be  given  of  the  kinds  of  valves 
and  the  methods  of  repairing  them. 

Globe  Valve.  This  valve,  shown  in  Fig.  91,  takes 
its  name  from  its  globular  form.  It  is  preferably  so 
placed  as  to  allow  the  pressure  of  the  steam  to  come 
under  the  valve. 

Check  Valve.  This  is  placed  between  the  boiler  and 
the  feed  pipe  to  prevent  the  return  of  water  and  steam. 


Fig.  91.— Globe  valve. 


304  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

Gate  Valve.  As  its  name  implies,  this  is  a  valve 
closed  by  a  gate. 

Throttle  Valve.  This  is  the  valve  that  admits  the 
steam  to  the  engine. 

Stop  or  Gas  Valve.  This  is  opened  by  giving  it  a 
half  turn.  It  is  commonly  used  on  receiving  vats,  and 
on  milk  and  skim-milk  pipes. 

Rotary  Valve.  This  is  illustrated  by  the  stop  cocks 
used  on  the  boiler. 

Ball  Valve.  This  is  an  automatic  valve  'Hustrated  by 
the  float  that  regulates  the  feed  of  the  separator. 

Parts  of  a  Globe  Valve.  These  are:  (i)  chamber; 
(2)  seat;  (3)  stem;  (4)  stuffing  box;  (5)  disc;  and  (6) 
handle.  The  chamber  is  the  place  where  the  valve  oper- 
ates. The  disc  is  attached  to  the  stem  and  closes  the 
valve  by  turning  it  onto  the  seat. 

Repairing  of  Globe  Valves.  There  are  three  parts  in  a 
valve  that  may  cause  it  to  leak :  ( i )  the  seat,  (2)  the  disc, 
and  (3)  the  stem.  In  valves  like  the  Huxley  where  the  seat 
and  disc  are  replaceable,  extras  should  always  be  kept 
on  hand  so  that  either  may  be  replaced  when  leaking. 
In  valves  like  the  Jenkins  where  only  the  disc  is  replace- 
able a  "reseater"  should  be  at  hand  whereby  the  seat  of 
the  valve  can  be  made  to  fit  tight  again.  A  reseater  for 
valves  from  one-half  to  one  and  one-half  inches  in 
diameter  can  be  bought  for  twenty-five  dollars,  and 
creameries  that  use  valves  in  which  the  seat  is  not  re- 
movable should  be  provided  with  one. 

The  valve  discs  are  made  of  various  materials,  but,  for 
ordinary  steam  pressure,  brass  and  "composition"  discs 
are  giving  the  best  satisfaction. 


CREAMERY  MECHANICS 


305 


The  stuffing  box  of  the  valve  is  packed  with  asbestos 
to  which  a  mixture  of  oil  and  graphite  is  first  added.  This 
packing  will  prevent  the  stem  from  leaking.  The  burr 
of  the  stuffing  box  must  be  tightened  from  time  to  time 
when  it  shows  signs  of  leaking. 

In  case  of  water  valves  the  stuffing  boxes  are  best 
packed  with  oiled  candle  wicking. 

UNING   UP    SHAFTING. 


A 


6 


D 


Fig.  92. — Intersecting  planes. 


Pig.  93.— An  aid  to  lining 
up  shafts. 


Fasten  a  heavily  chalked  string  along  the  ceiling  paral- 
lel to  the  direction  the  shafting  is  to  take.  Snap  the 
string,  and  a  white  mark  will  indicate  the  position  of  the 

20 


306  CREAMERY  BUTTER   MAKING 

shafting  in  a  plane  parallel  to  the  floor.  This  plane  is  in- 
dicated by  the  line  ab  in  Fig.  92.  Next  determine  the  posi- 
tion of  the  shafting  in  a  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  floor, 
indicated  by  the  line  cd.  This  is  done  as  follows :  Loosely 
fasten  the  hangers  along  the  white  chalk  line  and  properly 
fasten  the  shafting.  Now  hang  on  the  shafting,  at  inter- 
vals of  three  feet,  pieces  of  board  like  that  shown  in  Fig. 
93.  The  upper  end  is  rounded  to  fit  over  the  shaft,  while 
the  lower  end  is  perforated  as  indicated  by  the  dot.  These 
pieces  of  board  must  be  carefully  cut  so  that  the  distance 
P  is  the  same  in  all.  If  the  holes  at  the  lower  ends  are  all 
in  line  the  shafting  is  properly  lined  up.  If  not,  the  shaft 
needs  readjusting. 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

GRADING    CREAM    AND    MILK. 

As  long  as  bad  cream  and  milk  continue  to  be  accepted 
by  creameries,  just  so  long  will  grading  remain  a  desirable 
practice.  Statistics  show  that  in  spite  of  the  rapid  ex- 
tension of  inspection  and  educational  work,  there  has  been 
a  distinct  deterioration  in  the  quality  of  butter  in  recent 
years,  caused  undoubtedly  by  increasing  supplies  of  in- 
ferior cream.  The  general  acceptance  of  such  cream 
must  be  attributed  to  the  present  strenuous  competition 
in  the  creamery  sections. 

It  has  been  argued  that  because  of  this  very  competition 
the  grading  of  cream  would  be  impracticable.  This  may 
be  true,  to  some  extent  at  least,  where  grading  is  done 
solely  with  a  view  to  paying  farmers  according  to  the 
quality  of  cream  delivered,  and  while  such  a  basis  of 
payment  is  entirely  just  (and  because  of  this  should  be 
employed),  it  is  too  well  known  that  creameries  have  lost 
patronage  by  its  adoption. 

Grading  to  Improve  Butter  *  There  is,  however, 
another  important  side  to  the  grading  of  cream  which  of 
itself  should  justify  its  adoption,  and  that  is  the  improve- 
ment of  the  quality  of  butter.  The  mixing  of  all  grades 
of  cream — sour,  sweet,  stale,  putrid,  fresh,  rancid — can 
manifestly  not  produce  a  high  quality  of  butter.  The  old- 
est, strongest  and  sourest  cream  should  be  separated  from, 
the  best.  Immediately  after  pasteurizing  the  old,  sour 
cream,  it  should  be  treated  with  a  heavy  starter  and  churned 

307 


308  CREAMERY   BUTTER   MAKING 

as  soon  as  the  proper  churning  temperature  is  reached.  The 
remaining  cream  is  preferably  also  pasteurized  and  then 
treated  with  starter  and  ripened  in  the  usual  way.  The 
same  practice  may  also  be  followed  with  reference  to 
milk. 

Grading  is  advantageously  practiced  in  a  great  many 
of  the  larger  creameries,  but  owing  to  the  extra  labor 
and  expense  involved,  it  can  not  be  adopted  with  the 
same  advantage  by  the  smaller  creameries. 

With  small  creameries  that  can  not  make  separate 
churnings.  grading  may  still  be  followed  to  advantage. 
Where  it  is  desired  to  churn  all  the  cream  in  the  same 
churning,  a  better  quality  of  butter  is  possible  when  the 
sweet  cream  is  ripened  by  itself  with  a  heavy  starter  and 
the  sour,  stale  cream  added  to  this  a  few  hours  previous 
to  churning.  Adding  sour,  stale  cream  to  sweet  cream 
is  equivalent  to  adding  so  much  starter  of  a  kind  not  likely 
to  produce  very  good  results.  Moreover  when  a  fine 
flavored  starter  is  added  to  such  a  mixture  its  influence 
is  small  compared  with  what  it  is  when  added  to  sweet 
cream,  because  acid  is  a  hindrance  to  the  development 
of  the  lactic  acid  bacteria. 

Where  old,  sour  cream  is  held  some  hours  it  should  be 
kept  at  a  low  temperature. 

Grading  to  do  Justice  and  Improve  Raw  Material. 
The  butter  maker  has  far  better  control  over  sweet  cream 
than  he  has  over  sour  cream  and  can  therefore  make  a  bet- 
ter quality  of  butter  from  it.  It  is  then  no  more  than  just 
that  the  patron  who  takes  good  care  of  his  cream  and 
endeavors  to  deliver  it  often,  should  receive  more  for  it 
than  the  man  who  is  careless  and  delivers  the  cream  only 
once  a  week.  Wherever  possible  patrons  should  be  paid 
according  to  the  quality  of  cream  delivered. 


GRADING  CREAM  AND  MILK  309 

Grading  should  also  stimulate  careless  patrons  to  im- 
prove the  quality  of  their  milk  and  cream.  Indeed  this 
would  certainly  follow  in  many  cases,  unless  the  patron 
is  so  situated  that  he  might  patronize  a  competing 
creamery  which  is  willing  to  accept  his  cream  on  a  par 
with  the  best  cream. 

Number  of  Grades.  In  general  creamery  practice  two 
grades  will  perhaps  be  found  to  give  better  satisfaction 
than  more  grades.  A  number  of  the  larger  creameries, 
however,  make  use  of  three  grades. 

Basis  of  Grading  Cream.  Cream  is  ordinarily  graded 
on  taste,  smell  and  acidity.  In  some  cases  the  grading 
is  done  wholly  on  the  basis  of  acidity,  in  others  it  is  done 
wholly  by  taste  and  smell.  In  a  few  cases  frequency  of 
delivery  and  richness  are  considered.  All  of  the  above 
factors  have  a  bearing  upon  the  quality  of  cream. 

Where  an  expert  examines  the  cream,  the  sense  of 
taste  and  smell  yields  the  best  judgment  as  to  the  quality 
of  butter  that  can  be  made  from  such  cream.  Whatever 
basis  of  grading  is  employed,  the  sense  of  smell  must 
always  form  a  part  of  it. 

The  grading  upon  a  basis  of  acidity  alone  may  result 
in  unfairness,  because  a  fine  flavored,  sour  cream  is  not 
as  objectionable  as  a  sweet,  stale  smelling  cream.  How- 
ever where  this  test  is  employed  in  conjunction  with  the 
sense  of  smell  the  results  are  usually  very  satisfactory. 

In  regard  to  the  frequency  of  delivery,  it  is  evident  that 
any  cream  four  days  old,  regardless  of  how  it  has  been 
produced  and  handled,  will  not  make  a  first  class  quality 
of  butter.  Where  cream  of  this  age  or  older  is  received, 
therefore,  it  can  justly  be  barred  from  grade  No.  I,  with- 
out any  examination  whatever.  For  this  reason  the  age 
of  the  cream  should  prove  valuable  as  aid  in  grading. 


310  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

Since  sour  cream  containing  less  than  30%  fat  can  not 
be  satisfactorily  pasteurized  and  since  rich  cream  has  the 
further  advantages  mentioned  on  page  237,  the  richness 
of  cream  may  well  be  considered  in  grading. 

The  basis  for  grading  cream  must  necessarily  vary 
under  different  conditions. 

A  Rapid  Acid  Test  for  Cream.  Such  a  test  is  de- 
scribed on  page  81,  and  can  be  used  for  milk  as  well 
as  for  cream.  If  a  higher  standard  of  acidity  is  to  be 
fixed  than  the  one  employed  on  page  81,  the  only  change 
necessary  is  to  make  the  solution  stronger. 

For  tests  employed  in  general  grading  of  milk  and 
cream,  see  Chapter  XXII. 


APPENDIX. 

Composition  of  Butter.  According  to  analyses  re- 
ported by  various  experiment  stations,  American  butter 
has  the  following  average  composition : 


Water  .. 

Fat   

Proteids 
Salt  . 


Per  cent. 

13 

....        83 

i 

3 


Composition  of  Cream.  Cream  contains  all  the  con- 
stituents found  in  milk,  though  not  in  the  same  proportion. 
The  fat  may  vary  from  8%  to  68%.  As  the  cream  grows 
richer  in  fat  it  becomes  poorer  in  solids  not  fat.  This  is 
illustrated  in  the  following  figures  by  Richmond: 


Total  solids. 

Solids 
not  fat. 

Fat. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

32.50 

6.83 

25.67 

37.59 

6.14 

31.45 

50.92 

5.02 

45.90 

55.05 

4.65 

50.40 

57.99 

4.17 

53.82 

68.18 

3.30 

64.88 

The  same  authority  also  reports  the  following  detailed 
analysis  of  a  thick  cream : 


311 


312 


CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 


Per  cent. 

Water  39.37 

Fat    56.09 

Sugar    2.29 

Proteids   i .  57 

Ash 38 

Composition  of  Buttermilk.  According  to  Vieth, 
buttermilk  from  ripened  cream  has  the  following  compo- 
sition : 

Per  cent. 

Water  90 . 39 

Fat   50 

Milk  sugar   4.06 

Lactic  acid   .80 

Proteids  3 . 60 

Ash   75 

Creamery  buttermilk  should  not  average  above  .2%  fat. 
Composition    of    Skim=milk.      Richmond   has    found 
the   following  average   composition   of   separator   skim- 
milk: 

Per  cent. 

Water  90 . 50 

Fat 10 

Milk  sugar   4.95 

Casein    3.15 

Albumen  .42 

Ash   78 

COMPARISON     OF     CENTIGRADE     AND     FAHRENHEIT     THER- 
MOMETER SCALES. 

Thermometer. 

Boiling  point  (water) 212  100 

Freezing  point  (water) 32  0 

Difference  between  boiling  and  freezing  point 180  100 


APPENDIX  313 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  one  degree  Centi- 
grade is  equivalent  to  9-5  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Hence 
the  following  rules : 

1.  To  change  C.  into  F.  reading,  multiply  by  9-5  and 
add  32. 

Example:    50°C  =  (50  X  {)  +  32  =  112°F. 

2.  To  change  F.   into  C.    reading,   subtract  32  and 
multiply  by  5-9. 

Example:    182°F  =  (182  -  32)  X  f  =83i°C. 

METRIC    SYSTEM    OF   WEIGHTS   AND    MEASURES. 

This  system  was  devised  by  the  French  people  and  has 
very  extensive  application  wherever  accuracy  in  weights 
and  measures  is  desired.  Some  of  its  equivalents  in 
ordinary  weights  and  measures  are  given  in  the  follow- 
ing table: 


Ordinary  weights  and  measures. 

Equivalents  in  metric  system. 

1  ounce  (av.) 

28.35      grams. 

1  qu  art                                 

0.9464  liter. 

1  gallon                                        

3.7854  liters. 

!  fluid  ounce  

29.57     cubic  centimeters  (c.c.) 

I  pound  (av  )                      

0.4536  kilogram. 

1  grain  

64.8      milligrams. 

I  inch 

2.54     centimeters. 

1  foot.           

0.3048  meter. 

314  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

CONSTITUTION  AND  BY-LAWS  FOR  A  CO-OPERATIVE  CREAM- 
ERY ASSOCIATION.* 

Articles  of  Agreement  of  the Association. 

We  the  undersigned  residents  of  the  county  of , 

State  of ,  do  hereby  associate  ourselves  together 

as  a  co-operative  association  under  the  laws  of  the  State 
of and  have  adopted  the  following  constitution : 

Article  I. 

This  association  shall  be  known  as  the 

Association. 

Article  II. 

The  object  of  this  association  shall  be  the  manufacture 
of  butter  from  milk  and  cream  bought  on  the  fat  basis. 

Article  III. 

The  regular  meetings  of  this  association  shall  be  held 

annually  on  the day  of  the  month  of 

Special  meetings  may  be  called  by  the  president,  or  on 
written  request  of  one-third  of  the  members  of  the  asso- 
ciation, provided  three  days'  notice  of  such  meeting  is 
sent  to  all  members. 

Article  IV. 

The  officers  of  this  association  shall  be  a  president, 
secretary,  treasurer,  and  three  trustees,  who  shall  be 
elected  annually  at  the  regular  annual  meeting.  The 

*  In  drawing  up  this  constitution  and  by-laws,  free  use  has  been  made  of 
Vye's  Creamery  Accounting  and  Farrington  &  Woll's  Testing  Milk  and  Its 
Products. 


APPENDIX  315 

president  or  secretary  shall  also  act  as  general  manager 
of  the  creamery. 

Article  V. 

The  duties  of  the  president  shall  be  to  preside  at  all 
meetings  of  the  association,  sign  all  drafts  and  docu- 
ments, and  pay  all  money  which  comes  into  his  posses- 
sion by  virtue  of  his  office  to  the  treasurer,  taking  his 
receipt  therefor. 

The  secretary  shall  keep  a  record  of  all  the  meetings  of 
the  association  and  make  and  sign  all  orders  upon  the 
treasurer.  He  shall  conduct  the  correspondence  and  gen- 
eral business  of  the  association  and  keep  a  correct  finan- 
cial account  between  the  association  and  its  members. 

The  treasurer  shall  receive  and  receipt  for  all  moneys 
belonging  to  the  association,  and  pay  out  the  same  only 
upon  orders  which  shall  be  signed  by  the  president  and 
the  secretary.  He  shall  give  bonds  in  such  amount  as 
the  association  shall  prescribe. 

The  president,  secretary,  and  three  trustees  shall  con- 
stitute a  board  of  directors,  whose  duties  shall  be  to  audit 
the  accounts  of  the  association,  invest  its  funds,  and 
determine  all  compensations.  They  shall  prescribe  and 
enforce  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  creamery.  They 
shall  cause  to  be  kept  a  record  of  the  weights  and  tests 
of  the  milk  and  cream  received  from  each  patron,  of  the 
products  sold,  and  of  the  running  expenses,  and  shall 
divide  among  the  patrons  the  money  due  them  each 
month. 

The  board  of  directors  shall  cause  the  secretary  to 
make,  in  writing,  a  report  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the 
association,  setting  forth  in  detail  the  gross  milk  receipts, 
the  net  receipts  of  products  sold,  and  all  other  receipts, 


316  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

the  amount  paid  for  milk  and  running  expenses,  and  give 
a  complete  statement  of  all  other  matters  pertaining  to 
the  business  of  the  association.  They  shall  also  make 
some  provision  for  the  withdrawal  of  any  member  from 
the  association,  and  make  a  report  in  detail  to  the  asso- 
ciation at  the  annual  meeting. 

The  board  of  directors  shall  borrow  a  sum  of  money 

not  exceeding thousand  dollars  to  be  used  by 

them  solely  for  the  purpose  of  building  and  equipping 
a  creamery. 

Article  VI. 

Ten  members  of  the  association,  or  three  of  the  board 
of  directors,  shall  constitute  a  quorum  to  transact  busi- 
ness. 

Article  VII. 

Each  member  shall  be  entitled  to  one  vote  only  at  any 
meeting  of  the  association.  New  members  may  be  ad- 
mitted as  provided  by  the  by-laws.  Members  shall  be  per- 
mitted to  withdraw  only  as  provided  by  the  by-laws. 

Article  VIII. 

The  constitution  may  be  amended  at  any  annual  meet- 
ing, or  at  any  special  meeting,  provided  that  two-thirds 
of  all  the  members  present  vote  in  favor  of  such  a  change. 

By-Laws  of  the Association. 

1.  The  milk  of  each  patron  shall  be  tested  not  less 
than  twice  a  month. 

2.  No  milk  shall  be  received  at  the  creamery  later 
than  ten  o'clock  a.  m. 


APPENDIX  317 

3.  One  cent  for  each  pound  of  butter  fat  received  at 
the  creamery  shall  be  reserved  to  form  a  sinking  fund. 

4.  The    treasurer    shall    give   bonds    in    the    sum   of 

dollars,  the  bond  to  be  approved  by  the 

board  of  directors. 

5.  Patrons  shall  furnish  all  of  the  milk  from  all  the 
cows  promised  at  the  organization  of  the  creamery. 

6.  Nothing  but  sweet  and  pure  milk  shall  be  accepted 
at  the  creamery. 

7.  All  milk  received  at  the  creamery  shall  be  paid  for 
on  the  basis  of  the  amount  of  fat  it  contains. 

8.  Dividends  shall  be  made  on  the  twentieth  day  of 
each  month. 

Storch's  Test  for  Milk  and  Its  Products.  This  test 
makes  it  possible  to  determine  whether  milk,  cream,  skim- 
milk  or  buttermilk  has  been  heated  to  176°  F.  or  above. 
It  is  made  as  follows :  Put  one  teaspoonful  of  milk  into 
a  test  tube,  add  one  drop  of  2%  solution  of  peroxid  of 
hydrogen  and  two  drops  of  2%  solution  of  paraphenylene- 
diamin;  shake  the  mixture;  if  a  dark  violet  color  promptly 
appears,  the  milk  has  not  been  heated  to  176°  F. 


GLOSSARY. 

ALBUMENOIDS. — Substances  rich  in  albumen,  like  the 
white  of  an  egg  which  is  nearly  pure  albumen. 

ANAEROBIC. — Living  without  free  oxygen. 

CALIBRATING.— Determining  the  caliber  of  the  neck  of  a 
test  bottle  in  order  to  ascertain  the  accuracy  of  the 
scale  upon  it. 

CARBOHYDRATES. — Substances  like  starch  and  sugar. 

CENTRIFUGAL  FORCE. — That  force  by  which  a  body  mov- 
ing in  a  curve  tends  to  fly  off  from  the  axis  of  motion. 

CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION. — This  refers  to  the  elements  or 
substances  of  which  a  body  is  composed. 

COLLOIDAL. — Resembling  glue  or  jelly. 

CONCUSSION. — The  act  of  shaking  or  agitating. 

CONSTITUENTS. — The  components  or  elements  of  a  sub- 
stance. 

DEAD  CENTER. — That  position  of  the  engine  when  the 
crank  arm  and  the  piston  rod  are  in  a  straight  line. 

DIVIDERS. — An  instrument  used  in  reading  tests. 

EMULSION. — A  mixture  of  oil  (fat)  and  water  contain- 
ing sugar  or  some  mucilaginous  substance. 

ENZYMES. — Unorganized  ferments,  or  ferments  that  do 
not  possess  life. 

FIBRIN. — A  substance  which  at  ordinary  temperatures 
forms  a  fine  network  through  milk  which  impedes 
the  rising  of  the  fat  globules. 

FOREMILK. — The  first  few  streams  of  milk  drawn  from 
each  teat. 

GALACTASE. — An  unorganized  ferment  in  milk  which  di- 
gests casein. 

318 


GLOSSARY  319 

INOCULATION. — To  seed,  to  transplant;  as  to  inoculate 
milk  with  lactic  acid  germs. 

INSULATION. — The  state  of  being  protected  from  heat  and 
cold  by  non-conducting  material. 

LEAD. — The  amount  of  opening  of  the  steam  ports  when 
the  engine  is  on  the  dead  center. 

LOPPERED  MILK. — Milk  that  has  thickened. 

MAMMARY  GLAND. — The  organ  which  secretes  milk. 

MEDIUM. — The  substance  in  which  bacteria  live.  Thus, 
milk  furnishes  an  excellent  medium  for  the  growth  of 
bacteria. 

MENISCUS. — A  body  curved  like  a  first  quarter  moon. 

MILK  SERUM. — Milk  free  from  fat.  Thus,  skim-milk  is 
nearly  pure  milk  serum. 

MIXING  CANS. — Small  tin  cans  used  for  mixing  milk  pre- 
paratory to  testing. 

NEUTRAL. — Possessing  neither  acid  nor  alkaline  prop- 
erties. 

NON-CONDUCTOR. — A  material  which  does  not  conduct 
heat  or  cold,  or  only  so  with  great  difficulty. 

OSMOSIS. — The  tendency  in  fluids  to  diffuse  or  pass 
through  membranes. 

PARTURITION. — The  act  of  being  delivered  of  young. 

PASTEURIZATION. — The  process  of  destroying  all  or  most 
of  the  vegetative  bacteria  by  the  application  of  heat 
from  140°  to  185°  F. 

PERIOD  oE  LACTATION. — The  time  from  calving  to  "dry- 
ing up." 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES. — The  external  characteristics  of  a 
body,  like  color,  odor,  hardness,  solubility,  density, 
form,  etc. 

PROPAGATE. — To  continue  to  multiply.  Thus,  to  propa- 
gate a  starter  means  to  continue  multiplying  the  lactic 


320  CREAMERY  BUTTER  MAKING 

acid  bacteria  by  daily  transferring  them  to  a  new 

medium  such  as  sweet  pasteurized  skim-milk. 
PROTEIDS. — Nitrogenous  substances  like  casein  and  albu- 
men. 
REDUCING  VALVE. — A  valve  used  for  regulating  steam 

pressure. 
REFRIGERANT. — In  mechanical  refrigeration  a  substance 

whose  evaporation  produces  cold. 
RENNET. — The  curdling  and  digesting  principle  of  calf 

stomach. 

SCORING. — A  term  used  synonymously  with  judging. 
SECRETION. — The  act  of  separating  or  producing  from  the 

blood  by  the  vital  economy. 
SEPTIC. — Promoting  decay. 
SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. — The  weight  of  one  body  as  compared 

with  an  equal  volume  of  some  other  body  taken  as 

a  standard. 
SPECIFIC  HEAT. — The  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise 

the  temperature  of  a  body  one  degree. 
SOLUTION. — The  state  of  being  dissolved. 
SPORE. — The  resting  or  non-vegetative  stage  of  certain 

kinds  of  bacteria. 
STEAM    TRAP. — An    arrangement    by    which    condensed 

steam  may  be  taken  out  of  heating  pipes  without  the 

escape  of  steam. 
STERILIZATION. — The  process  of  destroying  all  germ  life 

by  the  application  of  heat  near  212°  F. 
STRIPPERS'  MILK. — The  milk  from  cows  far  advanced  in 

the  period. of  lactation. 
STRIPPINGS. — The  last  few  streams  of  milk  drawn  from 

each  teat. 
SUSPENSION. — The  state  of  being  held  mechanically  in  a 

liquid,  like  butter  fat  in  milk. 


GLOSSARY  321 

TRYPSIN. — The    active    agent    in    the    secretion    of    the 

pancreas. 
VEGETATIVE  BACTERIA. — Those  bacteria  that  are  in  an 

actively  growing  condition. 

VISCOSITY. — The  quality  of  being  sticky;  stickiness. 
VOLATILE. — The  state  of  wasting  away  on  exposure  to  the 

atmosphere.    Easily  passing  into  vapor  like  ammonia. 
WHOLE  MILK. — Milk  which  has  neither  been  watered  nor 

skimmed. 
21 


INDEX. 


Page 

Acid,  butyric  15,  4G 

Acidity   of  cream, 

effect  of  richness  on 82 

Acid  measures  27 

Acid,   oleic    14 

palmitic    14 

sulphuric   28 

Acid  tests  for  cream 77 

Albumen   l'i 

Albumenoids    16 

Appendix   311 

Ash  of   milk ' 17 

Babcock  test  23 

directions  for   making 28 

how  to  read 29,  169 

principle  of    2H 

sample  for   23 

Babcock  Tester  24 

calculating    speed    for 32 

Bacteria    (see  fermentations)  .   42 

butyric   acid   46 

lactic  acid   44 

Barn   air   247 

Barn,  sanitary    242 

yard,  clean  243 

Bath    room    179 

Bearings,    hot    300 

Belting,  size  of 298 

lacing  of   299 

Bichromate   of  potash 52 

Bitter  fermentation  47 

Boiler,    care   of 281 

firing  of   279 

scale    282 

smoke    stack    for 285 

Book-keeping    215 

Bottles,   Babcock, 

how   to   calibrate 31 

how   to   clean...- 31 

Brine    salting    105 


Page 
Butter,  calculating  water  in..  158 

color  of    102,  143 

composition  of    311 

control  of  water  in 154 

fat    13 

composition  of   14 

globules    13 

insoluble 14 

melting   point  of 14 

percentage  of,  in  milk..   20 
physical  properties  of..   13 

soluble    14 

specific  gravity  of 14 

flavor  of  66,  141 

foreign   packages   for 113 

granules,    size  of 103 

judging 137 

marketing  of 116 

milk,  composition  of 312 

for  a  starter 76,  86 

handling  of   136 

packages  for  Ill 

preparing    Ill 

packing  Ill 

printer   113 

printing  cold   115 

salting   103 

sampling  of  156 

score  cards  138 

texture  of    142 

tubs,  paraffining  of 114 

preparation   of    Ill 

washing  of  103 

water  in    154 

working  of    106 

value  of   262 

Butyric  fermentation  46 

Calculating  dividends  119 

Cans,  starter  93 

milk    and    cream 251 


323 


324 


INDEX 


Page 

Cans,    weigh 11 

Casein    16 

Chromogenic  fermentation   40 

Churn,  gas  in   103 

pumping  cream  into 100 

straining  cream  Into 102 

Churning   OG 

at  once   100 

conditions   that    influence..   06 

difficult   108 

foaming    in     ..108 

operations    .  .101 

Churns   00 

cleaning    108 

Color,   butter    102 

Colostrum   milk    18 

Composite  samples,  care  of 54 

frequency   of  testing.... 55 

sampling    51 

test  jars  56 

Compressor,    size    of 210 

expense    of    operating...... 210 

power  required  to  operate.  .210 
Cooling  of  milk  and  cream.. ..231 

Co-operative    creameries. . . ... . .224 

Corrosive  sublimate 52 

Cream  acid  tests 77 

adding  color  to .....102 

bottles,    Babcock ..25,  167 

churnability  of  . . 67 

composition  of  311 

coolers     140,  233 

cooling  of   .....65,  231 

danger  of  adding  ice  to....   76 
effect  of  richness  on  weight 

of    167 

flavor  of 66 

frequency   of   delivering...  .254 

frothing  of    68 

grading   of .307 

hauling  of  .252 

pasteurization 148 

*     pasteurization  of  gathered  151 

pumps    .......:.. ..100,  110 

rapid   method  of  determin- 
ing acidity  of   81 

richness  of,  how  regulated.    63 
ripeners    74 


Page 

Cream    ripening    66 

control    of    71 

methods  of  68 

objects   of    66 

sample    160 

samplers   53,  162 

sampling  at  creamery 165 

at  farm    164 

gathered    161 

scales 28,  167,   168 

selling  of 263 

separator,    choice  of.. 50 

efficiency    of    ;....   50 

history  of 58 

shipping    of 253 

skim  station   253 

standardizing 264 

straining    102 

taints,   detection  of... 200 

testing    166 

frequency  of   ....166 

transportation ;251 

cans . .  ;252 

value  of  ........262 

weighing  at   creamery..... .165 

at  farm ...165 

Creamery  bath  room .....170 

boiler    .:........... ...272 

accessories    274 

book-keeping .215 

construction 72 

Creamery,  co-operative 224 

constitution  for   ........ 314 

management    of .......226 

method   of    organizing.... ..224 

floor,  construction  of 176 

plan    .174 

heating  of   180 

intake    176 

location    .171 

mechanics    272 

sewage   ..188 

sewerage   178 

ventilation    178 

Creaming 57 

efficiency   of 50 

Curdling   fermentation    45 


INDEX 


325 


Page 

Dairy  house   .230 

construction    230 

equipment    of .231 

Digesting    fermentation 45 

Dividends,   calculating 119 

Engine,   care  and  management 

of 293 

horse  power  of 294 

.parts  of    287 

Erricson  starter  88 

Farrington  acid  test 79 

Fat  globules   13 

insoluble    15 

soluble     16 

Fermentations,  milk  43 

abnormal     47 

bitter    47 

butyric    46 

chromogenic    ." 49 

classification    of 43 

curdling  and  digesting 45 

gassy    49 

lactic  44 

normal     44 

slimy   or   ropy 48 

toxic    49 

Feed,    wholesome 246 

Firing  of  boiler 279 

Fore-milk    248 

Formalin    52 

Friction,  discussion  of 298 

Gassy    fermentation 9 

Gerber  fermentation   test .204 

Globules,    fat 13 

Globulin 16 

Glossary 318 

Governor,    engine 290 

Grading   cream   and  milk 307 

Hanseu   starter 88 

Ice  box,  a  cheap 239 

Ice,   cost   of  making 182 

cooling  power  of 182 

cream    , 266 


Page 

Ice  cream,   lemon ...268 

selling   ..262 

value  of  .263 

vanilla    266 

house,    construction   of 183 

for  creamery  183 

for    farm 239 

location  or 175 

source  of 182 

Injector 275 

Insoluble  fat 15 

Intake 176 

Judging    butter 137 

Lactic  fermentation  44 

Lactometer,    use   of 34 

Lubricator  292 

Mann's   acid  test 78 

Marketing   butter    116 

cream   263 

ice  cream 270 

McKay  sampler. . . . 162 

Mechanical   refrigeration 205 

Metric  system .313 

Michels    sampler    162 

Milk  adulteration ,   39 

bottle,  Babcock   25 

colostrum  18 

composition  of 12 

coolers  232,  233 

cooling   231 

fermentations .   43 

grading  of ;307 

heaters,  direct 62 

indirect 63 

pail,  sanitary ..245 

physical  properties  of 11 

preservatives 52 

samplers   53,  162 

sanitary  production  of 241 

secretion    18 

solids    , 36 

calculation  of. 38 

specific   gravity  of..........   12 

sugar  17 

taints,    detection    of 200 


326 


INDEX 


Page 

Milk,   testing  acidity  of 81 

thief    53 

variation    in   quality   of —   19 

Milkers    244 

Moisture  tests  (see  water  tests 

for  butter)    159 

Monthly  statements 122,  124 

Mottles  in  tfutter.. 143 

Nuclein   16 

Oils    300 

Oleic    acid 14 

Overrun  121 

from   milk  and  cream 122 

ice  cream 2JO 

theoretical  1*28 

Packages,  butter Ill 

ice  cream 268 

Packing  butter .111 

ice  cream 268 

Palmitic  acid 14 

Paraffining  tubs 114 

Pasteurization,  advantages  of..  149 

of  cream 145,  148,  266 

cost  of 152 

of  skimmilk 132 

Paying  for  milk  and  cream 126 

Piston  of  engine 288 

Power  on  farm 234 

Preservatives  52 

Printing  butter 112,  115 

Pulleys  295 

calculating  size  of 295 

speed  of 295 

Pumps  for  boiler 277 

for  cream 109,  110 

Refrigerating  plant 

charging  of  211 

operating  of   211 

pipes 210 

Refrigeration, 

mechanical   205 

principle    in    205 

strength  of  brine  in.... 209 
systems   of.. 208 


Page 

Refrigeration,    natural    182 

Refrigerator    185,  187 

cooled  with  ammonia 206 

with  ice  at  end 186 

with  ice  overhead 184 

location  of 175 

size  of 184 

Rule    for    calculating    butter- 
milk   129 

cream  from  milk 262 

ice  cream  yield 263 

size  of  pulleys 295 

skimmilk  128 

solids  not  fat 36 

total    solids 36 

for  churning  temperature. .  97 

Salt    an    absorbent 106 

rate    of... 104 

Salting,   object  of 155 

Sample,    aliquot 161 

Sanitary  milk  production 241 

Scovell  sampler 53 

Separator,  method  of  fastening  236 

Septic  tank 188 

construction  of 189 

cost  of 192 

flow  through • 191 

object  of 189 

size  of 191 

Sewage  disposal   188 

from    creamery 188 

from  dwelling- 192 

Shafting,  lining  up 305 

Shafts,  adjustment  of 300 

Shipping  cream 253 

ice  cream 271 

Skimmilk,    composition   of 312 

handling  of  130 

pasteurization    of 132 

Slimy    fermentation    48 

Standardizing  cream 264 

Starters,  acidity  of 91 

buttermilk   76,  86 

classification  of   85 

cans  93 

carrying    several 92 

commercial    87 


INDEX 


327 


Page 

Starters,    definition    of. 84 

how   to   select   milk  for —   90 

natural  85 

natural  vs.  commercial 89 

object   of 84 

pointers  on 94 

renewal   of 92 

use  of  every  other  day —   90 

whole    milk 91 

Steam  278 

wet  and  dry 284 

Sterilizer,   author's    196 

Sterilizing  milk  vessels 196 

Storch  test  317 

Strainers   t 247 

Straining  247 

Sulphuric  acid 28 

Testing  cream 166 

Tests,  averaging  of 124 

reading  cream 169 

reading  milk 29 

Thermometer  scales  312 


Page 

Titration  77 

Toxic  fermentation   49 

Valves  303 

repairing  of 304 

slide   289 

Ventilation   of  creamery 178 

Vessels,  clean 244 

Washing    butter 103 

milk  vessels 194 

Wash  sinks 194 

Water,  content  of  butter 154 

factors   that  influence..  154 
methods  of  determining  156 

determining  purity  of 261 

filtering  of 259 

importance    of    pure 256 

pasteurization   of    259 

tank,    hot 199 

tests  for  butter 159 

Well,    construction   of 256 

Wisconsin  curd  test 201 


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